ANNOTATED LIST OF THE SPECIES 237 15732, 4, 88-136 mm., Rio Huallaga, Yurimaguas, Allen, November, 1920. 15804, 10, 79-112 mm., mouth Rio Pacaya, Allen, August, 1920. 15861, 5, 47-120 mm., Rio Ucayali, Contamana, Allen, August, 1920. 15862, 1, 114 mm., Puerto Bermudez, Rio Pichis, Allen, July, 1920. 15863, 4, 100-118 mm., Iquitos, Allen, September, 1920. 15864,2,86and105mm.,brook,RioItaya,Allen,September,1920. 15865, 64-77 mm., Lago Cashiboya, Allen, August, 1920. 15866, 85-142 mm., Rio Pachitea, Allen, July, 1920. 15867, 3, 106-142 mm., Rio Ucayali, Orellana, Allen, August, 1920. 15868, 11, 65-114 mm., Yarinacocha, Allen, August, 1920. ————,3,42-110!mm,Iquitos;Mornis,11922:
a Of extreme depth, 1.6-1.8 in the length; two humeral bars usually distinct, and at least faintly seen. Rare in the Guianas and wanting in coastal streams. 287. TETRAGONOPTERUS CHALCEUS Agassiz CoregonusamboinensisArtedi,1738,Spec.Pisc.,44. TetragonopteruschalceusAgassiz,1829,Sel.Gen.etSpec.Pisce.Bras.,70,tab.xxxiii,fig.1; Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1848, Hist. Nat. Poiss., XXII, 140; Giinther, 1864, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., V, 320; Cope, 1871, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, 260, R. Ambyiacu; Cope, 1878, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., XVII, 691, Peruvian Amazon; Fowler, 1906, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 440, Rio Ambyiacu, Pebas, the Hauxwell, Perkins, Orton collections; Eigenmann,1910,Rept.PrincetonUniv.Exped.Patagonia,III,438; figenmann,1912,Mem.CarnegieMus.,V,320; Eigenmann, 1917, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLIII, i, 59, pl. iv, fig. 1; pl. exviii, fig. 4. Tetragonopterus orton Gill, 1870, Proce. Aead. Nat. Sci. Phila., X XII, 92, Napo or Maranon; Cope, 1870, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., XI, 566, Pebas; Cope, 1878, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., XVII, 691, Maranon. Upper Amazons to the Guianas Head 3.0-3.66; depth 1.66—2.0; D. III, 9; A. IV, 30 or I-IV, 36, usually 33, sometimes 34, developed rays; scales 8, 30 + 38, 5 (6 to anal); dusky blotch at the base of the caudal.
Subfamily: STETHAPRIONINAE Differing from the Tetragonopterinae in the procumbent, predorsal spine; like them very deep and very compressiform; dorsal and ventral contours similar and very convex; premaxillary teeth in two series, the mandibulars in one; maxillaries in one series or wanting; caudal scaled; lateral line complete; ventral margin compressed to an edge; dorsal fin variously falecate; an adipose fin present; pectorals short; anal long.
Genus 109: STETHAPRION Cope StethaprionCope,1870,Proc.Amer.Phil.Soc.,XI,562; Steindachner, 1882 (1883), Denksch. KIx. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XLVI, 13; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 441; Kigenmann and Myers, 1929, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLII, v, 500.
238 FISHES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Type: Stethaprion erythrops Cope Madeira basin of Bolivia to Peruvian and Ecuadorean Amazon A long, slender predorsal, equal to eye diameter, with a pair of lateral retrorse hooks at its middle, fitting into a groove before the dorsal fin; scales small, the ventral scales but slightly serrate; dorsal profile greatly arched, highest at the origin of the dorsal fin, where it forms an angle of about 120 degrees; ventral profile more convex, lowest at the origin of the anal fin; head broad above and compressed ventrally; mouth large; ventral fins very small; lateral line but shghtly decurved. 288. STETHAPRION ERYTHROPS Cope StethaprionerythropsCope,1870,Proc.Amer.Phil.Soc.,XI,562,fig.¢,Pebas; Steindachner, 1882 (1883), Denksch. KIx. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XLVI, 13, two, Rio Huallaga; Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 481, fig. 59, Pebas; EKigenmann,1910,Rept.PrincetonUniv.Exped.Patagonia,IIT,441; Eigenmann and Myers, 1929, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLIII, v, 501, pl. Ixx, fig. 1; pl. xevili, fig. 6, Iquitos, Yarinacocha.
Amazons 15803, 31, 60-100 mm., Yarinacocha, Allen, August, 1920. 15877, 4, 64-92 mm., Rio Itaya, Iquitos, Allen, September, 1920. 15886, 1, 66 mm., Iquitos, Allen, September, 1920. 289. STETHAPRION CHRYSEUM Cope StethaprionchryseumCope,1871,Proc.Acad.Nat.Sci.Phila.,261; Cope, 1878, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., XVII, 692; Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 482, fig. 60; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 441; Eigenmann and Myers, 1929, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLII, v, 502. Lower Maranon May be identical with S. erythrops; not known except through the one 71-mm. specimen of the Hauxwell collection of Cope.
Genus 110: EPHIPPICHARAX Fowler FowlerinaBigenmann,1907,Ann.CarnegieMus.,IV,153; Eigenmann,1907,Amer.Nat.,XLI,771(preoccupied). Ephippicharax Fowler, 1913, Science, XX XVIII, 51; Fowler, 1914, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LXN-VI, 250; Eigenmann and Myers, 1929, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLII, v, 503. Type: Tetragonopterus compressus Ginther Peruvian Amazon, Guianas, to Paraguay and Rio Sao Francisco Predorsal spine simple with hollow below, and fitting scale-like into a notch in the predorsal line; preanal spine wanting; caudal scaled; anal with one row of scales and long, scales 34-36; preventral a single series of smooth, median scales.
ANNOTATED LIST OF THE SPECIES 239 290. ErpHIPPICHARAX ORBICULARIS (Cuvier and Valenciennes) TetragonopterusorbicularisCuvierandValenciennes,1848,Hist.Nat.Poiss.,XXII,138,Essequibo to Amazon; Giinther,1868,Proce.Zool.Soc.London,229; Kigenmann and Eigenmann, 1891, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 52. FowlerinaorbicularisEigenmann,1910,Rept.PrincetonUniv.Exped.Patagonia,III,441; Eigenmann,1912,Mem.CarnegieMus.,V,374,pl.xlvi,fig.2. Ephippicharax orbicularis Fowler, 1914, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., LX. VI, 250; Pearson,1925,Ind.Univ.Studies,no.64,48; Eigenmann and Myers, 1929, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XLIII, v, 503, pl. Ixx, fig. 2; pl. xevill,fig.5.
Peruvian Amazon to Guianas and doubtfully R. Parahyba Third division—Serrasalmonine subfamilies Subfamily: SERRASALMONINAE Fishes collectively known as the pana, piranha, piraya, or perai, caribe, etc., in various countries. Abdomen trenchantly keeled and serrated, with a median series of scales or bony plates; compressed, elevated; dorsal fin long, anal long and with oblique basis; ventrals minute; scales small; predorsal naked; premaxillary and mandible with a single series of notched or lobate teeth; palate sometimes toothed.
Genus 111: SERRASALMUS Lacépéde SerrasalmusLacépede,1803,Hist.Nat.Poiss.,V,283; Norman,1928,Proce.Zool.Soc.London,784.
Serrasalmo Cuvier, 1819, Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat., V, 367; Eigenmann,1910,Rept.PrincetonUniv.Exped.Patagonia,ITI,441; Eigenmann,1912,Mem.CarnegieMus.,V,380; Eigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,IX,248;andauthorsgenerally. Type: Salmo rhombeus Linnaeus Orinoco and Guianas southward to Rio Paraguay and Bolivia Belly trenchant, serrate, serrae extending from the level of the pectorals to that of the anus; premaxillary with a single series of teeth; a series of triangular teeth on each side of the palatine; second suborbital covering about all of cheek; anal partially enclosed by scales.
291. SERRASALMUS SPILOPLEURA Kner Serrasalmo spilopleura ner, 1859, Denksch. Kk. Akad. Wiss. Wien, X VIII, 35, taf. v, fig. 2, Matto Grosso, Guaporé; Giinther, 1864, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., V, 370, Rio Capim; Eigenmann,1910,Rept.PrincetonUniv.Exped.Patagonia,IIT,442; Eigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,IX,252.
240 FISHES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA SerrasalmusspilopleuraNorman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,798,fig.13. Serrasalmo oesopus Cope, 1871, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, 269, Amazons between Rio HuallagaandRioNegro; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 442; Eigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,[X,252,doubtfullyseparablefromthepreceding. SerrasalmusoesopusFowler,1906(1907),Proc.Acad.Nat.Sci.Phila.,LVIII,469,fig.53. The oesopus material is limited to a single specimen in the museum of the Philadelphia Academy.
292. SERRASALMUS ELONGATUS [Kner Serrasalmo elongatus Kner, 1860, Denksch. Kix. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XVIII, 44, pl. v, fig. 12; Ginther, 1864, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., V, 371; Steindachner, 1882 (1883), Denksch. KIx. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XLVI, 16, Rio Huallaga, one specimen, 140 mm.; Jigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 442; Higenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,LX,250.
SerrasalmuselongatusNorman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,806,fig.18,one,180mm.,Solimoes. Huallaga basin to that of the Guaporé 15696, 2, 110 and 200 mm.. Yarinacocha, Allen, August, 1920. 293. SERRASALMUS RHOMBEUS (Linnaeus) SalmorhombeusLinnaeus,1766,Syst.Nat.,ed.12,I,514,Surinam; Gmelin, 1788, Syst. Nat., I, 686, no. 28; Bloch, 1794, Ausl. Fische, VIII, 112, pl. 383; BlochandSchneider,1801,Syst.Ichth.,404.
SerrasalmorhombeusLacépeéde,1804,Hist.Nat.Poiss.,V,284; Cuvier, 1919, Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat., V, 367; Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1848, Hist. Nat. Poiss., X XII, 272; Castelnau, 1855, Anim. Amér. Sud, Poiss., pl. xxxvil, fig. 3; Ginther, 1864, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., V, 369, Guianas; Eigenmann and Eigenmann, 1891, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., XTV, 60; Figenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, IIT, 442; Eigenmann,1912,Mem.CarnegieMus.,V,382; Higenmann, 1915, Ann. Carnegie Mus., [X, 254, pl. Iviii. Serrasalmo (misspelled Serrasalimo) ¢mmaculatus Cope, 1878, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., XVII, 692, Rio Maranon; Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 471, fig. 54, with notes on the types; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, IIT, 442. Serrasalmusrhombeus(inpart),Norman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,800,fig.14,one,collected byHiggins,Xeberos; Fowler, 1939 (1940), Proce. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., NCI, 271, prrana. Amazonia to the Guianas Cope’s Maranon material supposedly distinguished from his oesopus by smaller scales and elongate snout; Haseman reports a jet-black phase from Santarem.
ANNOTATED LIST OF THE SPECIES 241 294. SERRASALMUS MACULATUS Kner Serrasalmo maculatus Kner, 1859, Denksch. KIX. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XVIII, 41, pl. iv, fig. 10, Rio Guaporé; Giinther, 1864, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., V, 371; Cope,1870,Proc.Amer.Phil.Soec.,XI,566; Steindachner, 1882 (1883), Denksch. KIX. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XLVI, 15, Rio Huallaga, four specimens ; figenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 442; Eigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,LX,253.
Serrasalmus maculatus Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 469. SerrasalmusspilopleuraNorman(inpart),1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,798,fig.13. Peruvian Amazon to Bolivia 295. SERRASALMUS HUMERALIS Cuvier and Valenciennes SerrasalmohumeralisCuvierandValenciennes,1848,Hist.Nat.Poiss.,XXII,279; Castelnau,1855,Anim.Amér.Sud,Poiss.,71,pl.xxxvu,fig.2; Kner (in part), 1859, Denksch. KKK. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XVIII, 30, pl. iv, fig. 9; Gunther,1868,Proe.Zool.Soe.London,229; Cope, (1871), 1872, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, 292, Amazon, below Ucayali?; Steindachner, 1882 (1883), Denksch. Kk. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XLVI, 15, three specimens, Rio Huallaga; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, IIT, 442; Eigenmann, 1915, Ann. Carnegie Mus., IX, 256, pl. 1. Serrasalmus humeralis Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, 469, with notes on Cope’s specimens.
SerrasalmusrhombeusNorman(part),1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,800,fig.14. SerrasalmomarginatusNorman(part),1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,802,fig.15. Serrasalmo tridopsis Cope, 1871 (1872), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, 268, pl. ix, fig. 2, Rio Ambyiacu; Eigenmann and Eigenmann, 1891, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XIV, 60; Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIIT, 471, with notes on the type; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 442. Basins of Amazons and Paraguay rivers 156138,11,90-230mm.,LagoSanango,Allen,November,1920. 15689, 2, 150 and 178 mm., Manaos, Allen, December, 1920. 15690, 1, 143 mm., Rio Pichis, Puerto Bermudez, Allen, July, 1920. 15691,1,118mm.,Iquitos,Allen,September,1920. 15692, 2, 93 and 212 mm., mouth Rio Pacaya, Allen, August, 1920. 15694,16,67-132mm.,LagoCashiboya,Allen,August,1920. 15695, 4, 78-109 mm., Rio Pacaya, Yarinacocha, Allen, August, 1920. 15699,2,92and126mm.,RioHuallaga,Yurimaguas,Allen,November,1920. 15909, , Pebas, Steere.
17727,1,74mm.,Iquitos,Morris,1922.
Genus 112: ROOSEVELTIELLA Eigenmann Serrasalmus (in part) Lacépéde, 1803, Hist. Nat. Poiss., V, 283; Norman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,787.
RooseveltiellaEigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,IX,240.
242 FISHES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Type: Serrasalmo nattereri: Kner Amazons and La Plata basin Adipose fin without rays; palate without teeth; cheek of adult more or less fully armed; profile of head very slightly depressed; eye rather small, interorbital correspondingly wide; upper jaw short and very oblique; mandible powerful, its teeth very long, cutting edges nearly symmetrical, and much larger than those of the upper jaw.
296. ROOSEVELTIELLA NATTERERI (Kner) Pygocentrus natterer? Kner, 1859, Denksch. KIX. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XVII, 28, taf. i, fig. 8; BHigenmann and Eigenmann, 1891, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., XIV, 60; Fowler, 1906 (1907), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., LVIII, 468, Pebas; Eigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 442. Serrasalmo nattereri Cope, (1871), 1872, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, 292, Perkins and Orton collections.
SerrasalmusnatterertNorman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,787,textfigs.4and5; Fowler, 1939 (1940), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XCI, 271, seven, 98-158 mm., Contamana. RooseveltiellanattereriEKigenmann,1915,Ann.CarnegieMus.,[X,242. La Plata and Amazon systems 297. ROOSEVELTIELLA ALTA (Gill) Pygocentrus altus Gill, 1870, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXII, 93, the Orton collection from the NapoorMaranon; Eigenmann and Ogle, 1907, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XX XITI, 35, one, 155 mm. from the Orton collections; EKigenmann, 1910, Rept. Princeton Univ. Exped. Patagonia, III, 472. Rooseveltiella altus Figenmann, 1915, Ann. Carnegie Mus., IX, 244, pl. xlvi. Serrasalmusnatlerer?Norman,1928,Proc.Zool.Soc.London,787. Maranon basin 15614,1,155mm.,LagoSanango,Allen,November,1920.
15684,14,883-170mm.,RioPacaya,Allen,August,1920. 15685,2,122and132mm.,Yarinacocha,Allen,August,1920. 15686,4,133-162mm.,LagoCashiboya,Allen,August,1920. 15687,1,142mm.,Iquitos,Allen,September,1920.
15688, 3, 102-170 mm., Rio Ucayali, Contamana, Allen, August, 1920. 15700,1,123mm.,RioHuallaga,Yurimaguas,Allen,November,1920. 15910,1,108mm.,Pebas,probablySteerecoll.
The members of this subfamily constitute the infamous tribe of ‘‘man-eaters” known in the Guianas as the pera’, piraya, and caribe, in Brazil as the piranha (pronounced peer-ahn’-yah), and in the Oriente of Peru as para (pronounced pahn’yah). They are most frequently taken in the clearer waters of the quieter, backwater bayous and their inlets or outlets, and less abundantly in the swifter and muddier waters. They, together with the caymans and such fishes as Roeboides, make set-net fishing impossible. Some of my gill-nets were destroyed the very first time that they were placed in the water.
ANNOTATED LIST OF THE SPECIES 243 On pulling seines, it was necessary to take the pavas out as quickly as possible before other fishes, to prevent their eating their way out of the seine in the direction of the water, and even then it was impossible to prevent their damaging the fabric. Hook and line fishing was almost as difficult because of their voracious appetite for bait, so that they generally strike before other desired species have a chance, or devour the others before they can be pulled out. Furthermore it is necessary to fish with large hooks, for otherwise the pana will either bite your line, your leader, or your hook in two as a part of the day’s work. Hooks lost and leaders bitten off were the rule rather than the exception. The numbers of specimens reported above is a very inadequate expression of the abundance of specimens taken and shared with helpers for gastronomic purposes.
According to Humboldt (Obs. Zool. II, 174) the earliest account of these fishes is that of Fray Pedro Simon, who describes among the loot taken from an Indian village garments made in the form of trousers of a coarse net tied in knots as a safeguard against caribes while fishing. Humboldt also relates that a young Indian, inspecting a drawing of the caribe, pointed out that the constellation of the Southern Cross was called by the name of the fish. Schomburgk tells of seeing three young capybara with toes amputated by the fish, and waterfowl walking about on stumps of feet.
Accounts like the above run through both the scientific and the popular literature. Domville-Fife calls them river shark, and Dyott the vultures of the river. But the imagination of a Duguid paints it in colors most vividly of all writers: The alligator was... ‘‘dangled overboard with the tail cut off. The dark water kindled, a troubled cloud grew to immense proportions, and a silver terror shone beneath the surface. Occasionally there was a bright flash of scales and a flourish of fins....An air of concealed energy, horrible and intense, kept our eyes on the jerking rope . . . if ever a liquid may be said to heave, the river Paraguay did that afternoon....At last we could bear it no longer. We hauled with all our strength, and as the body slithered over the side, a gout of water shot into the engine. Queer, flapping noises came from the interior, and a deep-bellied fish fluttered on the floor-boards.”’ Contrast with this the reaction of Haseman, who simply recorded on his label of a Pygocentrus and put it in alcohol with the specimen ‘“‘bit my thumb”’, and on another, “nearly severed finger.”’ The biting powers and destruction of fish-hooks are widely commented upon (Dyott, 158; Beebe, 359; Woodroffe, 95; Paez, 420). Whitney describes the mouthful of ‘‘canine” teeth. Lange (1912, 208) tells of one biting a piece out of a steering paddle. The dangers of entering streams are discussed by many writers (Domville- Fife, 237; Koebel, 1915, 233; im Thurn, 137; Guenther, 175). Grubb (page 9) says towing a canoe is dangerous work on their account. Cherrie (page 71) alludes to their threat to wounded cattle. Many writers relay to us the story of the attraction of blood of wounded animals, misleading Whitney to say the piranha “eats blood, not flesh”. That blood does serve as an attraction 1s well shown by the great numbers in which I found them in a drainage ditch leading from the slaughter-house at Manaos.
244 FISHES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA The dangers to man are not greatly exaggerated, for we do have numbers of well-authenticated stories of their attack: im Thurn tells of one of his rowers having his toes stripped of flesh. The well-known Colonel Rondon lost a toe to one of them. Many Indians are seen with the extremities of fingers and toes missing. Miller (page 164) relates the loss of a piece of finger while washing the blood of a specimen from his hands at the water’s edge. Cherrie (page 265) repeats the Miller story and that of the loss of a finger by Mrs. 8. The latter while idly dangling her hand overboard in a canoe, thought one of her oarsmen had struck her with his paddle. She began to rebuke him for his awkwardness when she discovered that the finger was gone. Mr. Cherrie himself while baiting piranha from a limb overhanging the water, fell into the stream beside them. Although he thrashed the water furiously, he was unable to escape without numerous lacerations. Conversely, Miller tells of a native who, in fishing for piranha, dropped his purse overboard among them. By wading out cautiously from shore without agitating the water, he recovered the purse with his feet, and was not molested. Other observers report that the tribesmen of the forest know where, and under what circumstances, it 1s safe to enter streams without fear of lurking piranha, although known to be near at hand.
McGovern relates an observation: (page 42) a sheep carcass was completely consumed in two and one-half minutes. Im Thurn knew personally several cases of drownings in which only the bones of the victim were discovered after more or less immediate search. Hartt tells of a half-wit who, sitting on a river-bank, was frightened by the discharge of a cannon, fell into the water, and parts of whom were recovered in the stomachs of piranha taken next day. He also tells of a young woman, who, venturing to bathe in a stream, was devoured. Lange (1914, 213) relates that he killed a wild-pig in a river, and that its flesh had all been removed before the carcass could be hauled ashore.
I was frequently cautioned by my associates to keep specimens which we had caught, and which were floundering about on the bottom of our dugout, at a safe distance from my feet. In fact I had to guard my specimens from mutilation, so great was their fear of them. When handled, they did in fact always attempt to snap at us, even though out of water. Beebe mentions this necessity of constant vigilance, but one author spoils all other accounts by saying that he was snapped at by a bodyless head.
That such capable raptores should have a special place in relation to their biological environment goes almost without saying. Their great numbers and complete dominance might indicate a one-sided balance of nature, except that we find such numbers of species and individuals of many kinds. Castelnau, im Thurn, and others relate the observation of birds, iguanas, turtles, and alligators with feet and tails trimmed. White (Beebe) comments on the general attractiveness of tails, and tells of finding fragments of ducks, kingfishers, and kiskadees in the stomachs of fishes. Bird collectors report shooting specimens which they are unable to recover in time to save them. Duguid (page 37) says that cattle drovers of the “Green Hell’? were accustomed to reckoning the loss of a steer at every ford from the attacks of piranha.