Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (901 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A person's concept of self as being male and masculine or female and feminine, or ambivalent, based in part on physical characteristics, parental responses, and psychological and social pressures. It is the internal experience of gender role.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Gender Identities; Identity, Gender; Gender.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Identification, Psychological; Psychosexual Development
- Narrower topics
- Femininity; Masculinity; Transsexualism
- See also
- Transgender Persons
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 29,648 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Gender Identity” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 7,268 of them (24.5%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 9,467 records.
Reviews account for 2,974 records (10.0%) and meta-analyses for 140. Randomized controlled trials number 313 (1.1%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 9,467 |
| 2000-2009 | 5,167 |
| 2010-2019 | 7,746 |
| 2020 onward | 7,268 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 2,974 | 10.0% |
| Meta-analyses | 140 | 0.5% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 313 | 1.1% |
Method: PubMed query "Gender Identity"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in psychiatry and psychology
Research on mental health and behaviour relies on questionnaires, interviews and rating scales rather than physical measurements, so how a condition was defined and measured shapes every result. Many studies are observational or small, placebo responses can be large, and findings in one group or culture may not carry over to another. Nothing on this page is advice about diagnosis or treatment; anyone worried about their mental health should talk to a qualified clinician. Check how outcomes were measured, who took part and how long they were followed.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men's Mental Health Matters: The Impact of Traditional Masculinity Norms on Men's Willingness to Seek Mental Health Support; a Systematic Review of Literature | 2025 | Systematic review Design not recorded in structured metadata | 34 | cc by PMID 40421591 · DOI · PMC12117241 |
| Do Sex and Gender Have Separate Identities? | 2024 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 14 | cc by PMID 39105983 · DOI · PMC11335805 |
| Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths | 2024 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 14 | cc by PMID 38776085 · DOI · PMC11112442 |
| Managing Masculinity When Growing up With a Violent Father: A Qualitative Study of Boys' Experiences | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 39819169 · DOI · PMC12619848 |
Men's Mental Health Matters: The Impact of Traditional Masculinity Norms on Men's Willingness to Seek Mental Health Support; a Systematic Review of Literature [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Men's mental health is a focus area for improving population health worldwide.
- Closing excerpt
- Traditional masculinity norms significantly deter men from seeking mental health support, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive interventions that address these barriers.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (212 words)
Men's mental health is a focus area for improving population health worldwide. Traditional masculine norms among men have been reported to make them more susceptible to mental health issues. This study aims to review existing literature on how traditional masculinity norms influence men's willingness to seek mental health support. This review followed stages of systematic review. The review search was initiated in February 2024. The search process was conducted on electronic databases such as PubMed, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar to identify relevant studies published in English between 2000 and 2024. The search terms included "traditional masculinity norms," "men's mental health," "help-seeking behavior," and "barriers to mental health care." Studies were selected based on their relevance to the topic. The inclusion criteria were studies focusing on adult men and examining the relationship between traditional masculinity norms and mental health help-seeking behaviors. Exclusion criteria included studies focusing on children, adolescents, or women and nonempirical articles. Data extraction covered study details, design, population characteristics, and key findings. This study included 47 relevant studies. Two key themes emerged, namely: masculinity and mental health (impact on mental health); and barriers to seeking help. Traditional masculinity norms significantly deter men from seeking mental health support, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive interventions that address these barriers.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40421591 · DOI · PMC12117241
Do Sex and Gender Have Separate Identities? [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The largely binary nature of biological sex and its conflation with the socially constructed concept of gender has created much strife in the last few years.
- Closing excerpt
- Whereas sex in humans and other mammals is a biological reality that is largely binary and based on genes, chromosomes, anatomy, and physiology, gender is a sociocultural construct that is often, but not always, concordant with a person' sex, and can span a multitude of expressions.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (157 words)
The largely binary nature of biological sex and its conflation with the socially constructed concept of gender has created much strife in the last few years. The notion of gender identity and its differences and similarities with sex have fostered much scientific and legal confusion and disagreement. Settling the debate can have significant repercussions for science, medicine, legislation, and people's lives. The present review addresses this debate though different levels of analysis (i.e., genetic, anatomical, physiological, behavioral, and sociocultural), and their implications and interactions. We propose a rationale where both perspectives coexist, where diversity is the default, establishing a delimitation to the conflation between sex and gender, while acknowledging their interaction. Whereas sex in humans and other mammals is a biological reality that is largely binary and based on genes, chromosomes, anatomy, and physiology, gender is a sociocultural construct that is often, but not always, concordant with a person' sex, and can span a multitude of expressions.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39105983 · DOI · PMC11335805
Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ImportanceConcerns about the mental health of youths going through gender identity transitions have received increased attention.
- Closing excerpt
- Further longitudinal work should explore gender identity variability and adolescent and adult health.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (422 words)
ImportanceConcerns about the mental health of youths going through gender identity transitions have received increased attention. There is a need for empirical evidence to understand how transitions in self-reported gender identity are associated with mental health.ObjectiveTo examine whether and how often youths changed self-reported gender identities in a longitudinal sample of sexual and gender minority (SGM) youths, and whether trajectories of gender identity were associated with depressive symptoms.Design, setting, and participantsThis cohort study used data from 4 waves (every 9 months) of a longitudinal community-based study collected in 2 large cities in the US (1 in the Northeast and 1 in the Southwest) between November 2011 and June 2015. Eligible participants included youths who self-identified as SGM from community-based agencies and college groups for SGM youths. Data analysis occurred from September 2022 to June 2023.ExposureGender identity trajectories and gender identity variability.Main outcomes and measuresThe Beck Depression Inventory for Youth (BDI-Y) assessed depressive symptoms. Gender identity variability was measured as the number of times participants' gender identity changed. Hierarchical linear models investigated gender identity trajectories and whether gender identity variability was associated with depressive symptoms over time.ResultsAmong the 366 SGM youths included in the study (mean [SD] age, 18.61 [1.71] years; 181 [49.4%] assigned male at birth and 185 [50.6%] assigned female at birth), 4 gender identity trajectory groups were identified: (1) cisgender across all waves (274 participants ), (2) transgender or gender diverse (TGD) across all waves (32 participants), (3) initially cisgender but TGD by wave 4 (ie, cisgender to TGD [28 participants]), and (4) initially TGD but cisgender by wave 4 (ie, TGD to cisgender [32 participants]). One in 5 youths (18.3%) reported a different gender identity over a period of approximately 3.5 years; 28 youths varied gender identity more than twice. The cisgender to TGD group reported higher levels of depression compared with the cisgender group at baseline (Β = 4.66; SE = 2.10; P = .03), but there was no statistical difference once exposure to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender violence was taken into account (Β = 3.31; SE = 2.36; P = .16). Gender identity variability was not associated with within-person change in depressive symptoms (Β = 0.23; SE = 0.74; P = .75) or the level of depressive symptoms (Β = 2.43; SE = 2.51; P = .33).ConclusionsThese findings suggest that gender identity can evolve among SGM youths across time and that changes in gender identity are not associated with changes in depressive symptoms. Further longitudinal work should explore gender identity variability and adolescent and adult health.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 38776085 · DOI · PMC11112442
Managing Masculinity When Growing up With a Violent Father: A Qualitative Study of Boys' Experiences [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- A limited qualitative literature explores children's lived experiences of violence; boys' relationships with perpetrator fathers remain largely unexplored.
- Closing excerpt
- Our findings highlight the importance of interventions for boys that facilitate the expression of their often complex and ambivalent feelings and fears about their father's violence, and what it means for them and their future.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (110 words)
A limited qualitative literature explores children's lived experiences of violence; boys' relationships with perpetrator fathers remain largely unexplored. Drawing on interviews with 31 boys, this paper explores the accounts of their relationships with their perpetrator fathers, focusing particularly on the implications of boys' understanding of these relationships for their sense of burgeoning masculinity. Three themes are considered: in (a) relational ambiguity; (b) performing masculinities, managing violence; and (c) envisioning alternative futures and re-visioning the past. Our findings highlight the importance of interventions for boys that facilitate the expression of their often complex and ambivalent feelings and fears about their father's violence, and what it means for them and their future.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39819169 · DOI · PMC12619848
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms [5]
- Research article Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review [6]
- Research article Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies in transsexualism [7]
- Research article Assessing and Addressing Cardiovascular Health in People Who Are Transgender and Gender Diverse: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association [8]
- Research article Sex Steroids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [9]
- Research article Gender- and Sex-Based Contributors to Sex Differences in PTSD [10]
Full-text reviews on EvidenceLib
Open-access review articles about this topic, reproduced in full with authors, licence and references.
A systematic review of psychosocial functioning changes after gender-affirming hormone therapy among transgender people
David Matthew Doyle, Tom O G Lewis, Manuela Barreto · Nature Human Behaviour 2023 · CC BY 4.0
Sex and gender determinants following spinal fusion surgery: A systematic review of clinical data
Francesca Salamanna, Deyanira Contartese, Matilde Tschon et al. · Frontiers in Surgery 2022 · CC BY 4.0
European guidelines from the EHTG and ESCP for Lynch syndrome: an updated third edition of the Mallorca guidelines based on gene and gender
T T Seppälä, A Latchford, I Negoi et al. · The British Journal of Surgery 2021 · CC BY 4.0
Sex and gender differences in caregiving burden experienced by family caregivers of persons with dementia: A systematic review
Chen Xiong, Melissa Biscardi, Arlene Astell et al. · PLoS ONE 2020 · CC BY 4.0
Impacts of suicide bereavement on men: a systematic review
Nina Logan, Karolina Krysinska, Karl Andriessen · Frontiers in Public Health 2024 · CC BY 4.0
References
- Mokhwelepa LW, Sumbane GO. Men's Mental Health Matters: The Impact of Traditional Masculinity Norms on Men's Willingness to Seek Mental Health Support; a Systematic Review of Literature. . 2025. PMID 40421591 · DOI · PMC12117241
- Quintana GR, Pfaus JG. Do Sex and Gender Have Separate Identities?. . 2024. PMID 39105983 · DOI · PMC11335805
- Real AG, Lobato MIR, Russell ST. Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths. . 2024. PMID 38776085 · DOI · PMC11112442
- Callaghan JEM, Fellin LC, Mavrou S, Alexander JH, Deliyianni-Kouimtzis V, Sixsmith J. Managing Masculinity When Growing up With a Violent Father: A Qualitative Study of Boys' Experiences. . 2026. PMID 39819169 · DOI · PMC12619848
- Salk RH, Hyde JS, Abramson LY. Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychol Bull. 2017. PMID 28447828 · DOI · PMC5532074
- Chaplin TM, Aldao A. Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2013. PMID 23231534 · DOI · PMC3597769
- Arcelus J, Bouman WP, Van Den Noortgate W, Claes L, Witcomb G, Fernandez-Aranda F. Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies in transsexualism. Eur Psychiatry. 2015. PMID 26021270 · DOI
- Streed CG, Beach LB, Caceres BA, Dowshen NL, Moreau KL, Mukherjee M, et al.. Assessing and Addressing Cardiovascular Health in People Who Are Transgender and Gender Diverse: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2021. PMID 34235936 · DOI · PMC8638087
- Maraka S, Singh Ospina N, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, Davidge-Pitts CJ, Nippoldt TB, Prokop LJ, et al.. Sex Steroids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017. PMID 28945852 · DOI
- Christiansen DM, Berke ET. Gender- and Sex-Based Contributors to Sex Differences in PTSD. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020. PMID 32125541 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-11-04; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-11-04.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.