Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (675 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A refractive error in which rays of light entering the EYE parallel to the optic axis are brought to a focus in front of the retina when accommodation (accommodation, ocular) is relaxed. This results from an overly curved cornea or from the eyeball being too long from front to back. It is also called nearsightedness.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Myopias; Nearsightedness; Nearsightednesses.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Refractive Errors
- Narrower topics
- Myopia, Degenerative
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 25,044 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Myopia” (counts retrieved 2026-11-04). 7,096 of them (28.3%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2020 onward with 7,096 records.
Reviews account for 1,715 records (6.8%) and meta-analyses for 360. Randomized controlled trials number 1,146 (4.6%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 6,369 |
| 2000-2009 | 5,011 |
| 2010-2019 | 6,568 |
| 2020 onward | 7,096 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 1,715 | 6.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 360 | 1.4% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 1,146 | 4.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Myopia"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-11-04.
Reading the evidence in eye, ear, nose and throat
Eye, hearing, nose and throat studies rely on specialist tests (visual acuity, eye pressure, audiograms, scopes) and on patient-reported symptoms, which vary between people and with age. Some conditions improve without treatment, so comparison groups matter. Nothing on this page is advice about diagnosis or treatment; sudden loss of sight or hearing needs urgent care from a qualified clinician. Check how the outcome was tested, the age of the people studied and how long they were followed.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| RLRL Therapeutic Feasibility and Potential Mechanism on Myopia | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 12 | cc by PMID 41516298 · DOI · PMC12785860 |
| Quercetin improves retinal glycolysis to slow myopia progression through orchestrating the AKT/FOXO/HK2 axis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41980459 · DOI · PMC13092674 |
| The Impact of Myopia Control Spectacle Lens Designs on Visual Function | 2026 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41784766 · DOI · PMC13369762 |
RLRL Therapeutic Feasibility and Potential Mechanism on Myopia [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Myopia is a major global public health concern, with a particularly high and increasing prevalence in East Asia.
- Closing excerpt
- Finally, the feasibility and potential mechanism of the RLRL therapy for slowing myopia progression have been discussed from the perspective of safety.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (153 words)
Myopia is a major global public health concern, with a particularly high and increasing prevalence in East Asia. Although significant progress has been made in regard to developing strategies to slow the progression of myopia, the precise biological mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of myopia remain unclear. Repeated low-level red light (RLRL) therapy, a novel non-invasive photobiomodulation (PBM) technique, has demonstrated promising efficacy for controlling axial elongation and refractive error progression. This review first outlines the clinical definition, epidemiology, and global health impact of myopia, followed by the etiology-based pathogenesis and corresponding intervention strategies. Special attention has been given to emerging mechanistic evidence supporting RLRL, particularly its role in activating mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), enhancing retinal metabolism, influencing choroidal changes in blood perfusion and thickness, and in scleral remodeling. Finally, the feasibility and potential mechanism of the RLRL therapy for slowing myopia progression have been discussed from the perspective of safety.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41516298 · DOI · PMC12785860
Quercetin improves retinal glycolysis to slow myopia progression through orchestrating the AKT/FOXO/HK2 axis [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectivesMyopia is a major global public health issue.
- Closing excerpt
- This study lays the groundwork for further exploration metabolic reprogramming in myopia pathogenesis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (290 words)
ObjectivesMyopia is a major global public health issue. The retina relies on glycolysis to maintain its normal physiological functions and is vulnerable to oxidative damage. However, the effects of altered glycolysis on myopia progression remain poorly understood. This study aimed to explore how oxidative damage caused by changes in retinal glycolysis promotes myopia and evaluate the potential of quercetin in alleviating this process.MethodsWe used single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the retinas of myopic guinea pigs, followed by proteomic and phosphoproteomic profiling to identify differentially expressed proteins. We investigated the regulatory role of the AKT/FOXO/HK2 pathway in glycolysis via coimmunoprecipitation and dual-luciferase assays. Additionally, we assessed the role of glycolysis in myopia by overexpressing HK2 and using 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2DG). The effects of neuronal injury on myopia progression were explored using Fos overexpression and knockdown. Finally, after quercetin intervention, we conducted metabolomic analysis and measured retinal mitochondrial pressure and glycolysis rate to evaluate their effects on retinal metabolism.ResultsMultiomics analysis showed that the AKT/FOXO/HK2 pathway suppresses glycolysis during myopia progression. Protein interaction and dual-luciferase assays confirmed that reduced glycolysis promotes oxidative phosphorylation, leading to retinal oxidative damage and accelerating the progression of myopia. Quercetin treatment inhibited the AKT/FOXO/HK2 axis, restored mitochondrial oxygen consumption and glycolysis rates, and mitigated oxidative damage, which subsequently suppressed the activation of stress-responsive Fos. Furthermore, Fos overexpression amplified retinal neuronal injury, apoptosis, and mitochondrial damage to drive myopia progression. Inhibiting Fos expression or quercetin treatment alleviated neuronal injury and apoptosis, thereby inhibiting myopia progression.ConclusionOur findings suggest that quercetin may attenuate myopia progression, at least in part, by modulating the AKT/FOXO/HK2 axis to restore retinal glycolysis, thereby reducing oxidative stress and mitigating retinal neuronal damage and apoptosis. This study lays the groundwork for further exploration metabolic reprogramming in myopia pathogenesis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41980459 · DOI · PMC13092674
The Impact of Myopia Control Spectacle Lens Designs on Visual Function [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- PurposeTo profile the immediate effect of defocus-modulating and contrast-modulating myopia control spectacle lens interventions on visual function.
- Closing excerpt
- Clinicians should note differences in visual performance, especially VA and reading speed through the lens periphery and their relative testing.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (232 words)
PurposeTo profile the immediate effect of defocus-modulating and contrast-modulating myopia control spectacle lens interventions on visual function.MethodsHealthy myopic (mean spherical equivalent (MSE) -4.25 to -0.50 D) young adults, corrected with contact lenses, wore diffusion optics technology (DOT), defocus incorporated multiple segments (DIMS), highly aspherical lenslets (HAL) and standard single vision (SV) plano trial spectacle lenses, in a prospective, single-visit, double-blind, four-way randomised crossover study. Distance and near high- and low-contrast visual acuity (VA), contrast sensitivity, reading performance, accommodative facility, visual search task and accommodative accuracy were assessed foveally through the central zone (CZ) and/or peripheral zone (PZ) of the lenses.ResultsTwenty participants (16 female) were recruited, with a mean (±SD) age of 22.4 (±2.72) years and MSE -2.21 (±1.10) D. VAs through the PZ differed significantly between myopia control lenses and SV, with the HAL and DIMS exhibiting lower VA across all testing conditions (all p 0.05), whereas DIMS exhibited worse near acuity threshold and critical print size (p 0.05) or visual search duration (CZ: p = 0.68; PZ: p = 0.35). Accommodative response was similar across lenses (all p >0.05); however, SV had lower variability at distance through the PZ than DOT, HAL and DIMS (p ConclusionAll three myopia control lenses exhibited visual performance comparable to standard SV lenses through the CZ. Clinicians should note differences in visual performance, especially VA and reading speed through the lens periphery and their relative testing.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41784766 · DOI · PMC13369762
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050 [4]
- Research article The Complications of Myopia: A Review and Meta-Analysis [5]
- Research article Efficacy Comparison of 16 Interventions for Myopia Control in Children: A Network Meta-analysis [6]
- Research article Myopia as a risk factor for open-angle glaucoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review [8]
- Research article Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: implications for aetiology and early prevention [9]
Full-text reviews on EvidenceLib
Open-access review articles about this topic, reproduced in full with authors, licence and references.
Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta‐analysis
John G Lawrenson, Rakhee Shah, Byki Huntjens et al. · The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023 · CC BY 4.0
References
- Chen YJ, Jeon IC, Cho SS, Park DH. RLRL Therapeutic Feasibility and Potential Mechanism on Myopia. . 2025. PMID 41516298 · DOI · PMC12785860
- Zhang R, Zhang M, Xie Y, Wei H, Yang Z, Wen Y, et al.. Quercetin improves retinal glycolysis to slow myopia progression through orchestrating the AKT/FOXO/HK2 axis. . 2026. PMID 41980459 · DOI · PMC13092674
- Desiato A, Lam HY, Anand RR, Chatha I, Logan NS, Logan NS, et al.. The Impact of Myopia Control Spectacle Lens Designs on Visual Function. . 2026. PMID 41784766 · DOI · PMC13369762
- Holden BA, Fricke TR, Wilson DA, Jong M, Naidoo KS, Sankaridurg P, et al.. Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology. 2016. PMID 26875007 · DOI
- Haarman AEG, Enthoven CA, Tideman JWL, Tedja MS, Verhoeven VJM, Klaver CCW. The Complications of Myopia: A Review and Meta-Analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2020. PMID 32347918 · DOI · PMC7401976
- Huang J, Wen D, Wang Q, McAlinden C, Flitcroft I, Chen H, et al.. Efficacy Comparison of 16 Interventions for Myopia Control in Children: A Network Meta-analysis. Ophthalmology. 2016. PMID 26826749 · DOI
- Marcus MW, de Vries MM, Junoy Montolio FG, Jansonius NM. Myopia as a risk factor for open-angle glaucoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmology. 2011. PMID 21684603 · DOI
- Xiong S, Sankaridurg P, Naduvilath T, Zang J, Zou H, Zhu J, et al.. Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Acta Ophthalmol. 2017. PMID 28251836 · DOI · PMC5599950
- Rudnicka AR, Kapetanakis VV, Wathern AK, Logan NS, Gilmartin B, Whincup PH, et al.. Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: implications for aetiology and early prevention. Br J Ophthalmol. 2016. PMID 26802174 · DOI · PMC4941141
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-11-04; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-11-04.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.