Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (867 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The processes of milk secretion by the maternal mammary glands after parturition. The proliferation of the mammary glandular tissue, milk synthesis, and milk expulsion or let down are regulated by the interactions of several hormones including estradiol; progesterone; prolactin; and oxytocin.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Milk Secretion; Milk Secretions; Lactation, Prolonged; Lactations, Prolonged; Prolonged Lactation; Prolonged Lactations.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Reproductive Physiological Phenomena; Postpartum Period
- Narrower topics
- Milk Ejection
- See also
- Breast Feeding; Colostrum; Milk; Milk, Human; Galactogogues
Related concepts
- Mammary Glands
- Parturition
- Estradiol
- Progesterone
- Prolactin
- Oxytocin
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 52,799 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Lactation” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 10,605 of them (20.1%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 21,522 records.
Reviews account for 4,721 records (8.9%) and meta-analyses for 348. Randomized controlled trials number 1,457 (2.8%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 21,522 |
| 2000-2009 | 8,566 |
| 2010-2019 | 12,106 |
| 2020 onward | 10,605 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 4,721 | 8.9% |
| Meta-analyses | 348 | 0.7% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 1,457 | 2.8% |
Method: PubMed query "Lactation"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Volumetric printed biomimetic scaffolds support in vitro lactation of human milk-derived mammary epithelial cells | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 13 | cc by PMID 40465736 · DOI · PMC12136022 |
| Effect of Iodine Nutrition During Pregnancy and Lactation on Child Cognitive Outcomes: A Review | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 10 | cc by PMID 40573127 · DOI · PMC12196286 |
| The Mothers, Infants and Lactation Quality (MILQ) Study: Introduction and Study Design | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 8 | cc by PMID 41167835 · DOI · PMC12673385 |
| Pregnancy and Lactation Associated Osteoporosis of the Hip: A Systematic Review | 2026 | Systematic review Design not recorded in structured metadata | 4 | cc by PMID 41677903 · DOI · PMC12901228 |
Volumetric printed biomimetic scaffolds support in vitro lactation of human milk-derived mammary epithelial cells [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The human breast is remarkably plastic and remodels with each birth to produce milk optimally suited for the changing demands of the newborn.
- Closing excerpt
- This model offers exciting avenues to explore hormonal, nutritional, and mechanobiological factors involved in lactation, thereby improving understanding of lactation for the benefit of infants and their mothers.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (159 words)
The human breast is remarkably plastic and remodels with each birth to produce milk optimally suited for the changing demands of the newborn. This dynamic nature of lactation makes it challenging to study under controlled conditions. Given the health benefits of human milk, models of secretory mammary tissue would offer opportunities to study factors that influence this important food source. First, 3D models of the mammary duct/alveoli (D/A) were designed inspired by shapes found in vivo. Photoresins based on mammary decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) were optimized to match the mechanical properties of native breast tissue. Next, these D/A models were printed with a volumetric printer and seeded with human milk-derived mammary epithelial cells (MECs). MECs formed stable epithelial layers on the printed surfaces and secreted the β-casein and milk fat globules. This model offers exciting avenues to explore hormonal, nutritional, and mechanobiological factors involved in lactation, thereby improving understanding of lactation for the benefit of infants and their mothers.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40465736 · DOI · PMC12136022
Effect of Iodine Nutrition During Pregnancy and Lactation on Child Cognitive Outcomes: A Review [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Iodine deficiency remains one of the most serious global public health challenges, recognised as the leading cause of preventable brain damage worldwide.
- Closing excerpt
- Our findings highlight a U-shaped association, whereby both insufficient and excessive iodine exposure during pregnancy and lactation may impair optimal brain development in the offspring.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (189 words)
Iodine deficiency remains one of the most serious global public health challenges, recognised as the leading cause of preventable brain damage worldwide. It is widely accepted as the primary aetiological factor underlying iodine deficiency disorders (IDD). Inadequate maternal iodine intake reduces thyroxine synthesis, impairing foetal brain development and leading to long-term deficits in cognitive function across childhood and adulthood. However, emerging evidence also suggests that excessive iodine intake may disrupt thyroid function, particularly in individuals with underlying thyroid autoimmunity, potentially leading to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. In this state-of-the-art review, we examine the effects of iodine nutrition during pregnancy and lactation on child cognitive outcomes. We provide an overview of the recent global iodine status, critically appraise the current evidence linking both iodine deficiency and excess to neurodevelopmental outcomes, and offer expert interpretation of the key findings. We further highlight areas of uncertainty, introduce emerging evidence from contemporary studies, and propose directions for future research to inform and optimise public health policies and clinical practice. Our findings highlight a U-shaped association, whereby both insufficient and excessive iodine exposure during pregnancy and lactation may impair optimal brain development in the offspring.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40573127 · DOI · PMC12196286
The Mothers, Infants and Lactation Quality (MILQ) Study: Introduction and Study Design [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 mo of life and continued breastfeeding for 2 y or beyond.
- Closing excerpt
- Data from the MILQ study provide a valuable resource for updating existing nutrient intake recommendations, evaluating and improving infant nutrition strategies, and assessing interventions to optimize maternal and infant nutritional status and health.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (268 words)
The World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 mo of life and continued breastfeeding for 2 y or beyond. However, limited reliable, representative data on nutrient concentrations in milk from well-nourished mothers are available. Furthermore, there is a lack of data integrating human milk nutrient concentrations with the volume of milk transferred to infants during progressive stages of lactation. Accurate quantification of nutrient concentrations and milk volume is essential for setting macro- and micronutrient intake recommendations for infants and women's additional requirements for lactation. This first article in a series of 7 in this Supplement describes the Mothers, Infants, and Lactation Quality (MILQ) study conducted at sites in Bangladesh, Brazil, Denmark, and The Gambia. The MILQ study measured human milk nutrient concentrations and quantified milk volume throughout the first 8.5 mo of lactation. Validated analytical methodologies were used for nutrient quantification. The stable isotope dilution dose-to-mother method was used for milk volume measurement. A total of 1242 mother-infant dyads participated in the MILQ study. Milk volumes, milk nutrient concentrations, percentile curves, and total nutrient intakes (concentration times milk volume at each time point) are presented in the series of articles in this supplement. Comparisons are made between values in the MILQ study and those used by the Institute of Medicine (now renamed the National Academy of Medicine) to set nutrient intake recommendations for infants and lactating women, and with other selected studies. Data from the MILQ study provide a valuable resource for updating existing nutrient intake recommendations, evaluating and improving infant nutrition strategies, and assessing interventions to optimize maternal and infant nutritional status and health.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41167835 · DOI · PMC12673385
Pregnancy and Lactation Associated Osteoporosis of the Hip: A Systematic Review [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- During pregnancy and lactation, changes in mineral metabolism provide fetuses with sufficient calcium.
- Closing excerpt
- The absence of metabolic disease workup details in these cases is an area for future research and clinical focus.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (251 words)
During pregnancy and lactation, changes in mineral metabolism provide fetuses with sufficient calcium. Eith a reported instance of 4-400 per 1 million pregnancies, the decrease in bone mineral density causes pregnancy and lactation associated osteoporosis (PLO). This the first systematic review conducted on this condition affecting the hip. A comprehensive literature search of the databases Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science was conducted. The articles included for review were case studies or case series that consisted of pregnant patients with PLO of the hip. Data extraction was performed on the resulting 64 studies, totaling 149 patient cases. The average age reported was 33.5 years, with an average BMI of 26.5 kg/m2 and an average height of 165.8 cm. Symptom onset was reported in 50% of cases, 69% in the 3rd trimester, 25% in the 2nd trimester, and 4% in the postpartum period. The route of delivery was a cesarean section in 44% of cases, vaginal delivery in 33%, and unreported in 23%. Treatment included modified weight-bearing (40%), vitamin D and/or calcitriol (26%), and surgery (26%). Cesarean section in patients with PLO occurred at a greater percentage (44%) when compared to the rate of cesarean section in the United States in 2023 (32.1%). This could have implications for the health of the mother and the fetus. The majority of cases occurred during pregnancy. This may complicate the diagnosis and care of the patient. The absence of metabolic disease workup details in these cases is an area for future research and clinical focus.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41677903 · DOI · PMC12901228
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Environmental Exposure during Pregnancy: Influence on Prenatal Development and Early Life: A Comprehensive Review [5]
- Research article Donor Human Milk Protects against Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [6]
- Research article Impact of heat stress on lactational performance of dairy cows [7]
- Research article Association of Maternal Lactation With Diabetes and Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [8]
- Research article The Microbiota of the Human Mammary Ecosystem [9]
- Research article Meta-analysis of lactation performance in dairy cows receiving supplemental dietary methionine sources or postruminal infusion of methionine [10]
References
- Hasenauer A, Bevc K, McCabe MC, Chansoria P, Saviola AJ, Hansen KC, et al.. Volumetric printed biomimetic scaffolds support in vitro lactation of human milk-derived mammary epithelial cells. . 2025. PMID 40465736 · DOI · PMC12136022
- Ma ZF, Brough L. Effect of Iodine Nutrition During Pregnancy and Lactation on Child Cognitive Outcomes: A Review. . 2025. PMID 40573127 · DOI · PMC12196286
- Allen LH, Moore SE, Kac G, Michaelsen KF, Mølgaard C, Islam MM, et al.. The Mothers, Infants and Lactation Quality (MILQ) Study: Introduction and Study Design. . 2025. PMID 41167835 · DOI · PMC12673385
- Weckerly ML, Feingold CL, Singh NK, Fatehi MK, Abrahams R, Mirzai DA, et al.. Pregnancy and Lactation Associated Osteoporosis of the Hip: A Systematic Review. . 2026. PMID 41677903 · DOI · PMC12901228
- Gómez-Roig MD, Pascal R, Cahuana MJ, García-Algar O, Sebastiani G, Andreu-Fernández V, et al.. Environmental Exposure during Pregnancy: Influence on Prenatal Development and Early Life: A Comprehensive Review. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2021. PMID 33735860 · DOI
- Villamor-Martínez E, Pierro M, Cavallaro G, Mosca F, Kramer BW, Villamor E. Donor Human Milk Protects against Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2018. PMID 29461479 · DOI · PMC5852814
- Tao S, Orellana Rivas RM, Marins TN, Chen YC, Gao J, Bernard JK. Impact of heat stress on lactational performance of dairy cows. Theriogenology. 2020. PMID 32173067 · DOI
- Rameez RM, Sadana D, Kaur S, Ahmed T, Patel J, Khan MS, et al.. Association of Maternal Lactation With Diabetes and Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2019. PMID 31617928 · DOI · PMC6806428
- Fernández L, Pannaraj PS, Rautava S, Rodríguez JM. The Microbiota of the Human Mammary Ecosystem. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020. PMID 33330129 · DOI · PMC7718026
- Zanton GI, Bowman GR, Vázquez-Añón M, Rode LM. Meta-analysis of lactation performance in dairy cows receiving supplemental dietary methionine sources or postruminal infusion of methionine. J Dairy Sci. 2014. PMID 25242429 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.