Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (469 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The distal part of the arm beyond the wrist in humans and primates, that includes the palm, fingers, and thumb.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Hands.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Upper Extremity
- Narrower topics
- Fingers; Metacarpus
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 93,502 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Hand” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 14,223 of them (15.2%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 40,132 records.
Reviews account for 5,532 records (5.9%) and meta-analyses for 242. Randomized controlled trials number 2,323 (2.5%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 40,132 |
| 2000-2009 | 17,125 |
| 2010-2019 | 22,022 |
| 2020 onward | 14,223 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 5,532 | 5.9% |
| Meta-analyses | 242 | 0.3% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 2,323 | 2.5% |
Method: PubMed query "Hand"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A database of multimodal myography and hand kinematics during realistic daily life activities | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 6 | cc by PMID 40877319 · DOI · PMC12394619 |
| Primate dexterous hand movements are controlled by functionally distinct premotoneuronal systems | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 5 | cc by PMID 41671352 · DOI · PMC12893230 |
| Soft robotic gloves versus mirror therapy: a long-term comparative study on hand function and motor recovery in post-stroke rehabilitation | 2025 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 4 | cc by PMID 40874348 · DOI · PMC12406746 |
A database of multimodal myography and hand kinematics during realistic daily life activities [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- This paper introduces MyoKi, a database capturing multimodal myography and hand kinematics during various realistic daily life activities.
- Closing excerpt
- The database is designed to facilitate research in continuous hand control, enhancing the robustness and reliability of myoelectric devices for daily activities, moving towards user-friendly and effective control of robotic and prosthetic hands.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (170 words)
This paper introduces MyoKi, a database capturing multimodal myography and hand kinematics during various realistic daily life activities. MyoKi emphasizes the complexity of real-world settings, addressing limitations of existing databases, which often reflect controlled laboratory conditions. The database includes two subsets of participants designed to evaluate different sensor configurations. Both subsets contain surface electromyography (sEMG) and inertial measurement unit (IMU) data, along with hand kinematics covering 18 finger and wrist joints. For the second subset, additional force myography (FMG) data was collected. The database captures hand movements of 35 participants performing 74 tasks, with varying arm orientations and movements involving different grips and motions. By offering detailed participant profiles and systematically categorizing each task, the MyoKi database enables in-depth exploration of task complexity, sensor influence, and the impact of demographic and anthropometric factors on control system performance. The database is designed to facilitate research in continuous hand control, enhancing the robustness and reliability of myoelectric devices for daily activities, moving towards user-friendly and effective control of robotic and prosthetic hands.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40877319 · DOI · PMC12394619
Primate dexterous hand movements are controlled by functionally distinct premotoneuronal systems [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Dexterous hand movements are uniquely developed in primates and indispensable for their daily activities.
- Closing excerpt
- These findings redefine our understanding of primate dexterous hand control as emerging from the cooperative integration of evolutionarily distinct premotoneuronal systems.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (150 words)
Dexterous hand movements are uniquely developed in primates and indispensable for their daily activities. Traditionally, they were thought to depend primarily on the evolutionarily "newer" direct corticomotoneuronal (CM) pathway. However, recent studies suggest that the "older" indirect corticospinal pathways, mediated by spinal premotor interneurons (PreM-INs), also contribute, highlighting the need to clarify their functional differences. Here, we recorded neuronal activity from PreM-INs and CM cells in macaques during a precision grip task to compare their roles in generating hand muscle activity. Our results show that PreM-INs exert stronger facilitation across a broader set of muscles, promoting synergistic coactivation, whereas CM cells provide more selective facilitation, enabling control of relatively individual muscles. Decomposition analysis further revealed that these systems correspond to different control modes-synergy-based and individual-based control-balancing stability and flexibility. These findings redefine our understanding of primate dexterous hand control as emerging from the cooperative integration of evolutionarily distinct premotoneuronal systems.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41671352 · DOI · PMC12893230
Soft robotic gloves versus mirror therapy: a long-term comparative study on hand function and motor recovery in post-stroke rehabilitation [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectiveThis study aimed to compare the long-term effects of soft robotic gloves (SRGs) and mirror therapy on hand function and motor recovery in post-stroke patients.
- Closing excerpt
- The long-term benefits highlight the potential of SRGs as an effective intervention for promoting functional independence in stroke survivors.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (149 words)
ObjectiveThis study aimed to compare the long-term effects of soft robotic gloves (SRGs) and mirror therapy on hand function and motor recovery in post-stroke patients.MethodsA single-blinded, randomized controlled comparative study was conducted on 49 patients with chronic stroke assigned randomly to either the SRGs or mirror therapy group. Both groups underwent an 8-week intervention alongside conventional rehabilitation. The Box and Block Test (BBT), hand grip strength, and Fugl-Meyer Assessment-Upper Extremity (FMA-UE), were assessed at baseline, post-intervention, and 6-month follow-up.ResultsPost-intervention, the SRGs group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in all outcome measures compared with the mirror therapy group (p = 0.004, 0.011, and 0.021, respectively). These improvements were sustained at follow-up (p ConclusionFindings suggest that SRGs provide superior improvements in hand function and motor recovery compared with mirror therapy in post-stroke rehabilitation. The long-term benefits highlight the potential of SRGs as an effective intervention for promoting functional independence in stroke survivors.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40874348 · DOI · PMC12406746
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Functional neuroimaging correlates of finger-tapping task variations: an ALE meta-analysis [4]
- Research article The neural mechanisms of manual dexterity [5]
- Research article Raynaud phenomenon and digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis [6]
- Research article Risk of hand-foot skin reaction with sorafenib: a systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Brain-computer interface robotics for hand rehabilitation after stroke: a systematic review [8]
- Research article Investigation of the effect of conservative interventions in thumb carpometacarpal osteoarthritis: systematic review and meta-analysis [9]
References
- Andreas D, Werner D, Hou Z, Dwivedi A, Castellini C, Beckerle P. A database of multimodal myography and hand kinematics during realistic daily life activities. . 2025. PMID 40877319 · DOI · PMC12394619
- Takei T, Oya T, Seki K. Primate dexterous hand movements are controlled by functionally distinct premotoneuronal systems. . 2026. PMID 41671352 · DOI · PMC12893230
- Abdelraouf OR, Abdel Ghafar MA, Mohamed ME, Ibrahim ZM, Harraz EM, Seyam MK, et al.. Soft robotic gloves versus mirror therapy: a long-term comparative study on hand function and motor recovery in post-stroke rehabilitation. . 2025. PMID 40874348 · DOI · PMC12406746
- Witt ST, Laird AR, Meyerand ME. Functional neuroimaging correlates of finger-tapping task variations: an ALE meta-analysis. Neuroimage. 2008. PMID 18511305 · DOI · PMC2592684
- Sobinov AR, Bensmaia SJ. The neural mechanisms of manual dexterity. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021. PMID 34711956 · DOI · PMC9169115
- Hughes M, Allanore Y, Chung L, Pauling JD, Denton CP, Matucci-Cerinic M. Raynaud phenomenon and digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020. PMID 32099191 · DOI
- Chu D, Lacouture ME, Fillos T, Wu S. Risk of hand-foot skin reaction with sorafenib: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Oncol. 2008. PMID 18210295 · DOI
- Baniqued PDE, Stanyer EC, Awais M, Alazmani A, Jackson AE, Mon-Williams MA, et al.. Brain-computer interface robotics for hand rehabilitation after stroke: a systematic review. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2021. PMID 33485365 · DOI · PMC7825186
- Bertozzi L, Valdes K, Vanti C, Negrini S, Pillastrini P, Villafañe JH. Investigation of the effect of conservative interventions in thumb carpometacarpal osteoarthritis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Disabil Rehabil. 2015. PMID 25559974 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.