Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (802 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Periodic casting off feathers; HAIR; or cuticle. Molting is a process of sloughing or desquamation, especially the shedding of an outer covering and the development of a new one. This phenomenon permits growth in arthropods, skin renewal in amphibians and reptiles, and the shedding of winter coats in birds and mammals.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Moltings; Ecdysis; Ecdyses; Moulting; Moultings.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Metamorphosis, Biological
- See also
- Ecdysone; Ecdysterone
Related concepts
- Feathers
- Arthropods
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 2,260 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Molting” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 559 of them (24.7%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2010-2019 with 850 records.
Reviews account for 97 records (4.3%) and meta-analyses for 2. Randomized controlled trials number 23 (1.0%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 185 |
| 2000-2009 | 666 |
| 2010-2019 | 850 |
| 2020 onward | 559 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 97 | 4.3% |
| Meta-analyses | 2 | 0.1% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 23 | 1.0% |
Method: PubMed query "Molting"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Penaeid shrimp genome provides insights into benthic adaptation and frequent molting | 2019 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 329 | cc by PMID 30664654 · DOI · PMC6341167 |
| Functional genomic analysis of C. elegans molting | 2005 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 277 | cc by PMID 16122351 · DOI · PMC1233573 |
| Biological surface coating and molting inhibition as mechanisms of TiO2 nanoparticle toxicity in Daphnia magna | 2011 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 128 | cc by PMID 21647422 · DOI · PMC3103543 |
| Roles and regulation of the Kunitz domain protein MLT-11 during C. elegans cuticle synthesis and molting | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41369010 · DOI · PMC13181417 |
Penaeid shrimp genome provides insights into benthic adaptation and frequent molting [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Crustacea, the subphylum of Arthropoda which dominates the aquatic environment, is of major importance in ecology and fisheries.
- Closing excerpt
- vannamei genome not only provides an insight into the genetic underpinnings of specific biological processes, but also provides valuable information for enhancing crustacean aquaculture.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (145 words)
Crustacea, the subphylum of Arthropoda which dominates the aquatic environment, is of major importance in ecology and fisheries. Here we report the genome sequence of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, covering ~1.66 Gb (scaffold N50 605.56 Kb) with 25,596 protein-coding genes and a high proportion of simple sequence repeats (>23.93%). The expansion of genes related to vision and locomotion is probably central to its benthic adaptation. Frequent molting of the shrimp may be explained by an intensified ecdysone signal pathway through gene expansion and positive selection. As an important aquaculture organism, L. vannamei has been subjected to high selection pressure during the past 30 years of breeding, and this has had a considerable impact on its genome. Decoding the L. vannamei genome not only provides an insight into the genetic underpinnings of specific biological processes, but also provides valuable information for enhancing crustacean aquaculture.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 30664654 · DOI · PMC6341167
Functional genomic analysis of C. elegans molting [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Although the molting cycle is a hallmark of insects and nematodes, neither the endocrine control of molting via size, stage, and nutritional inputs nor the enzymatic mechanism for synthesis and release of the exoskeleton is well understood.
- Closing excerpt
- Many molting genes are conserved in parasitic nematodes responsible for human disease, and thus represent attractive targets for pesticide and pharmaceutical development.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (169 words)
Although the molting cycle is a hallmark of insects and nematodes, neither the endocrine control of molting via size, stage, and nutritional inputs nor the enzymatic mechanism for synthesis and release of the exoskeleton is well understood. Here, we identify endocrine and enzymatic regulators of molting in C. elegans through a genome-wide RNA-interference screen. Products of the 159 genes discovered include annotated transcription factors, secreted peptides, transmembrane proteins, and extracellular matrix enzymes essential for molting. Fusions between several genes and green fluorescent protein show a pulse of expression before each molt in epithelial cells that synthesize the exoskeleton, indicating that the corresponding proteins are made in the correct time and place to regulate molting. We show further that inactivation of particular genes abrogates expression of the green fluorescent protein reporter genes, revealing regulatory networks that might couple the expression of genes essential for molting to endocrine cues. Many molting genes are conserved in parasitic nematodes responsible for human disease, and thus represent attractive targets for pesticide and pharmaceutical development.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 16122351 · DOI · PMC1233573
Biological surface coating and molting inhibition as mechanisms of TiO2 nanoparticle toxicity in Daphnia magna [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The production and use of nanoparticles (NP) has steadily increased within the last decade; however, knowledge about risks of NP to human health and ecosystems is still scarce.
- Closing excerpt
- Because coating of aquatic organisms by manmade NP might be ubiquitous in nature, this form of physical NP toxicity might result in widespread negative impacts on environmental health.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (266 words)
The production and use of nanoparticles (NP) has steadily increased within the last decade; however, knowledge about risks of NP to human health and ecosystems is still scarce. Common knowledge concerning NP effects on freshwater organisms is largely limited to standard short-term (≤48 h) toxicity tests, which lack both NP fate characterization and an understanding of the mechanisms underlying toxicity. Employing slightly longer exposure times (72 to 96 h), we found that suspensions of nanosized (∼100 nm initial mean diameter) titanium dioxide (nTiO(2)) led to toxicity in Daphnia magna at nominal concentrations of 3.8 (72-h EC(50)) and 0.73 mg/L (96-h EC(50)). However, nTiO(2) disappeared quickly from the ISO-medium water phase, resulting in toxicity levels as low as 0.24 mg/L (96-h EC(50)) based on measured concentrations. Moreover, we showed that nTiO(2) (∼100 nm) is significantly more toxic than non-nanosized TiO(2) (∼200 nm) prepared from the same stock suspension. Most importantly, we hypothesized a mechanistic chain of events for nTiO(2) toxicity in D. magna that involves the coating of the organism surface with nTiO(2) combined with a molting disruption. Neonate D. magna (≤6 h) exposed to 2 mg/L nTiO(2) exhibited a "biological surface coating" that disappeared within 36 h, during which the first molting was successfully managed by 100% of the exposed organisms. Continued exposure up to 96 h led to a renewed formation of the surface coating and significantly reduced the molting rate to 10%, resulting in 90% mortality. Because coating of aquatic organisms by manmade NP might be ubiquitous in nature, this form of physical NP toxicity might result in widespread negative impacts on environmental health.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 21647422 · DOI · PMC3103543
Roles and regulation of the Kunitz domain protein MLT-11 during C. elegans cuticle synthesis and molting [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) are associated with many epithelia and often form a protective layer against biotic and abiotic threats in the environment.
- Closing excerpt
- Together, this work suggests that MLT-11 localizes similarly to precuticle components, and conserved sequences play distinct roles in promoting proper assembly of the aECM.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (222 words)
Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) are associated with many epithelia and often form a protective layer against biotic and abiotic threats in the environment. Despite their importance, we lack a deep understanding of their structure and dynamics in development and disease. Caenorhabditis elegans molting offers a powerful entry point to understanding developmentally programmed aECM remodeling. Here, we show that the poorly characterized putative protease inhibitor gene mlt-11 is directly regulated by the NHR-23 transcription factor. We identify key cis-regulatory elements required for robust mlt-11 expression. An internal MLT-11::mNeonGreen translational fusion transiently localized to the aECM in the cuticle and embryo. MLT-11::mNeonGreen also lined openings to the exterior (vulva, rectum, and mouth). mlt-11 is necessary to pattern all layers of the adult cuticle, and reduction of MLT-11 levels disrupted the barrier function of the cuticle. Deletion of conserved Kunitz protease inhibitor domains or intervening sequences produced a range of defects including either left or right roller phenotypes and small separations of the cuticle along the length of the animal (microblisters). MLT-11 is processed into at least 2 fragments, and internal and C-terminal mNeonGreen knock-ins display distinct localization patterns. Predicted mlt-11 null mutations caused fully penetrant embryonic lethality and elongation defects. Together, this work suggests that MLT-11 localizes similarly to precuticle components, and conserved sequences play distinct roles in promoting proper assembly of the aECM.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41369010 · DOI · PMC13181417
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Insights into the molecular basis of the hormonal control of molting and metamorphosis from Manduca sexta and Drosophila melanogaster [5]
- Research article The CHH-superfamily of multifunctional peptide hormones controlling crustacean metabolism, osmoregulation, moulting, and reproduction [6]
- Research article Regulation of crustacean molting: a review and our perspectives [7]
- Research article Arthropod nuclear receptors and their role in molting [8]
- Research article Control of the annual cycle in birds: endocrine constraints and plasticity in response to ecological variability [9]
- Research article Complex steroid-peptide-receptor cascade controls insect ecdysis [10]
References
- Zhang X, Yuan J, Sun Y, Li S, Gao Y, Yu Y, et al.. Penaeid shrimp genome provides insights into benthic adaptation and frequent molting. . 2019. PMID 30664654 · DOI · PMC6341167
- Frand AR, Russel S, Ruvkun G. Functional genomic analysis of C. elegans molting. . 2005. PMID 16122351 · DOI · PMC1233573
- Dabrunz A, Duester L, Prasse C, Seitz F, Rosenfeldt R, Schilde C, et al.. Biological surface coating and molting inhibition as mechanisms of TiO2 nanoparticle toxicity in Daphnia magna. . 2011. PMID 21647422 · DOI · PMC3103543
- Ragle JM, Turzo A, Jackson A, Vo AA, Pham VT, Daly K, et al.. Roles and regulation of the Kunitz domain protein MLT-11 during C. elegans cuticle synthesis and molting. . 2026. PMID 41369010 · DOI · PMC13181417
- Riddiford LM, Hiruma K, Zhou X, Nelson CA. Insights into the molecular basis of the hormonal control of molting and metamorphosis from Manduca sexta and Drosophila melanogaster. Insect Biochem Mol Biol. 2003. PMID 14599504 · DOI
- Webster SG, Keller R, Dircksen H. The CHH-superfamily of multifunctional peptide hormones controlling crustacean metabolism, osmoregulation, moulting, and reproduction. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2012. PMID 22146796 · DOI
- Chang ES, Mykles DL. Regulation of crustacean molting: a review and our perspectives. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2011. PMID 21501612 · DOI
- Nakagawa Y, Henrich VC. Arthropod nuclear receptors and their role in molting. FEBS J. 2009. PMID 19796154 · DOI
- Dawson A. Control of the annual cycle in birds: endocrine constraints and plasticity in response to ecological variability. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2008. PMID 18048294 · DOI · PMC2606722
- Zitnan D, Kim YJ, Zitnanová I, Roller L, Adams ME. Complex steroid-peptide-receptor cascade controls insect ecdysis. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 2007. PMID 17507015 · DOI · PMC4955941
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.