Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (863 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (pituitary gland, anterior). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Growth Hormone, Pituitary; Pituitary Growth Hormone; Somatotropin; Growth Hormone, Recombinant; Pituitary Growth Hormones, Recombinant; Recombinant Pituitary Growth Hormones; Recombinant Growth Hormones; Growth Hormones, Recombinant.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Pituitary Hormones, Anterior
- Narrower topics
- Human Growth Hormone
- See also
- Receptors, Somatotropin
Related concepts
- Pituitary Gland
- Anterior
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 58,565 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Growth Hormone” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 3,388 of them (5.8%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 36,141 records.
Reviews account for 7,385 records (12.6%) and meta-analyses for 186. Randomized controlled trials number 2,643 (4.5%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 36,141 |
| 2000-2009 | 11,954 |
| 2010-2019 | 7,082 |
| 2020 onward | 3,388 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 7,385 | 12.6% |
| Meta-analyses | 186 | 0.3% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 2,643 | 4.5% |
Method: PubMed query "Growth Hormone"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis in health and disease states: an update on the role of intra-portal insulin | 2024 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 28 | cc by PMID 39665021 · DOI · PMC11632222 |
| Personalized Medicine in Acromegaly: The ACROFAST Study | 2024 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 23 | cc by PMID 38943661 · DOI · PMC11651705 |
| Long-acting growth hormone in the treatment of growth hormone deficiency in children: a systematic literature review and network meta-analysis | 2024 | Systematic review Design not recorded in structured metadata | 20 | cc by PMID 38580693 · DOI · PMC10997584 |
| Efficacy and Safety of Once-Weekly Lonapegsomatropin in Adults With Growth Hormone Deficiency: foresiGHt Trial Results | 2026 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 6 | cc by PMID 41420532 · DOI · PMC13183427 |
Growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis in health and disease states: an update on the role of intra-portal insulin [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Growth hormone (GH) is the key regulator of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) generation in healthy states.
- Closing excerpt
- This review summarizes our current understanding of how changes in intra-portal insulin delivery to the liver in health, disease states and drug therapy use and misuse that leads to alterations in GH/IGF-I secretion that may dictate management decisions in afflicted patients.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (248 words)
Growth hormone (GH) is the key regulator of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) generation in healthy states. However, portal insulin delivery is also an essential co-player in the regulation of the GH/IGF-I axis by affecting and regulating hepatic GH receptor synthesis, and subsequently altering hepatic GH sensitivity and IGF-I generation. Disease states of GH excess (e.g., acromegaly) and GH deficiency (e.g., congenital isolated GH deficiency) are characterized by increased and decreased GH, IGF-I and insulin levels, respectively, where the GH/IGF-I relationship is reflected by a "primary association". When intra-portal insulin levels are increased (e.g., obesity, Cushing's syndrome, or due to treatment with glucocorticoids and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists) or decreased (e.g., malnutrition, anorexia nervosa and type 1 diabetes mellitus), these changes secondarily alter hepatic GH sensitivity resulting in a "secondary association" with discordant GH and IGF-I levels (e.g., high GH/low IGF-I levels or low GH/high IGF-I levels, respectively). Additionally, intra-portal insulin regulates hepatic secretion of IGFBP-1, an inhibitor of IGF-I action. Through its effects on IGFBP-1 and subsequently free IGF-I, intra-portal insulin exerts its effects to influence endogenous GH secretion via the negative feedback loop. Therefore, it is important to understand the effects of changes in intra-portal insulin when interpreting the GH/IGF-I axis in disease states. This review summarizes our current understanding of how changes in intra-portal insulin delivery to the liver in health, disease states and drug therapy use and misuse that leads to alterations in GH/IGF-I secretion that may dictate management decisions in afflicted patients.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39665021 · DOI · PMC11632222
Personalized Medicine in Acromegaly: The ACROFAST Study [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ContextMedical treatment of acromegaly is currently performed through a trial-and-error approach using first-generation somatostatin receptor ligands (fgSRLs) as first-line drugs, with an effectiveness of about 50%, and subsequent drugs are indicated through clinical judgment.
- Closing excerpt
- More patients in the personalized protocol achieved hormonal control compared to those in the control group (78% vs 53%, P ConclusionPersonalized medicine is feasible using a relatively simple protocol, and it allows a higher number of patients to achieve control in a shorter period of time.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (201 words)
ContextMedical treatment of acromegaly is currently performed through a trial-and-error approach using first-generation somatostatin receptor ligands (fgSRLs) as first-line drugs, with an effectiveness of about 50%, and subsequent drugs are indicated through clinical judgment. Some biomarkers can predict fgSRLs response.ObjectiveHere we report the results of the ACROFAST study, a clinical trial in which a protocol based on predictive biomarkers of fgSRLs was evaluated.MethodsThis was a prospective trial (21 university hospitals) comparing the effectiveness and time-to-control of 2 treatment protocols during 12 months: (A) a personalized protocol in which the first options were fgSRLs as monotherapy or in combination with pegvisomant, or pegvisomant as monotherapy depending on the short acute octreotide test (sAOT) results, tumor T2 magnetic resonance (MRI) signal or immunostaining for E-cadherin; and (B) a control group with treatment always started by fgSRLs and the other drugs included after demonstrating inadequate control.ResultsEighty-five patients participated; 45 in the personalized and 40 in the control group. More patients in the personalized protocol achieved hormonal control compared to those in the control group (78% vs 53%, P ConclusionPersonalized medicine is feasible using a relatively simple protocol, and it allows a higher number of patients to achieve control in a shorter period of time.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 38943661 · DOI · PMC11651705
Long-acting growth hormone in the treatment of growth hormone deficiency in children: a systematic literature review and network meta-analysis [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The purpose of this study is to compare the relative efficacy and safety of long-acting growth hormone (LAGH) as a growth hormone replacement therapy in prepubertal children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD).
- Closing excerpt
- This is the first study to indirectly compare the LAGH thorough a network meta-analysis and provide evidence of the optimal efficacy of various LAGH specifically PEG-LAGH and acceptable safety profile in prepubertal children with GHD.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (222 words)
The purpose of this study is to compare the relative efficacy and safety of long-acting growth hormone (LAGH) as a growth hormone replacement therapy in prepubertal children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD). We searched the PubMed, Embase, CNKI, and Wanfang databases from inception to July 2023 and identified eleven relevant studies. PEG-LAGH showed better effect on height velocity (mean difference [MD]: - 0.031, 95% credibility interval [CrI]: - 0.278, 0.215) than somatrogon (MD: 0.105, 95% CrI: - 0.419, 0.636), somapacitan (MD: 0.802, 95% CrI: - 0.451, 2.068) and lonapegsomatropin (MD: 1.335, 95% CrI: - 0.3, 2.989) when compared with daily growth hormone (DGH). Furthermore, in terms of height standard deviation score, PEG-LAGH demonstrated better improvement (MD: - 0.15, 95% CrI: - 1.1, 0.66) than somatrogon (MD: - 0.055, 95% CrI: - 1.3, 0.51) and somapacitan (MD: 0.22, 95% CrI: - 0.91, 1.3). PEG-LAGH (risk ratio [RR]: 1.00, 95% CrI: 0.82, 1.2) reduced the risk of adverse events compared with other LAGH (somatrogon, RR: 1.1, 95% CrI: 0.98, 1.2; somapacitan, RR: 1.1, 95% CrI: 0.96, 1.4; lonapegsomatropin, RR, 1.1, 95% CrI: 0.91, 1.3) and was comparable with DGH. This is the first study to indirectly compare the LAGH thorough a network meta-analysis and provide evidence of the optimal efficacy of various LAGH specifically PEG-LAGH and acceptable safety profile in prepubertal children with GHD.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 38580693 · DOI · PMC10997584
Efficacy and Safety of Once-Weekly Lonapegsomatropin in Adults With Growth Hormone Deficiency: foresiGHt Trial Results [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ContextAdult growth hormone (GH) deficiency (GHD) is characterized by metabolic abnormalities caused by insufficient GH production.
- Closing excerpt
- 04%; P ConclusionThe foresiGHt trial met its primary efficacy end point by demonstrating superiority of lonapegsomatropin vs placebo with similar safety and tolerability, supporting its potential as a once-weekly treatment option for adults with GHD.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (192 words)
ContextAdult growth hormone (GH) deficiency (GHD) is characterized by metabolic abnormalities caused by insufficient GH production. Lonapegsomatropin, a prodrug administered once weekly, was designed to provide sustained release of unmodified somatropin to reduce the burden of daily somatropin injections.ObjectiveThis work aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of lonapegsomatropin vs placebo as treatment for adults with GHD.MethodsThe foresiGHt trial was a multicenter, randomized, parallel-arm, placebo-controlled (double-blind) and active-controlled (open-label) trial (NCT04615273) conducted at 116 centers in North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific. The trial randomly assigned and dosed 259 adults with GHD. Participants were randomly assigned 1:1:1 to receive once-weekly lonapegsomatropin, once-weekly placebo, or daily somatropin for 38 weeks. The primary efficacy end point was change from baseline in trunk percent fat at week 38. Secondary efficacy end points included change from baseline in trunk fat mass and total body lean mass.ResultsAt week 38, lonapegsomatropin significantly reduced trunk percent fat (-1.68% vs +0.37%; least squares [LS] mean difference -2.04%; P ConclusionThe foresiGHt trial met its primary efficacy end point by demonstrating superiority of lonapegsomatropin vs placebo with similar safety and tolerability, supporting its potential as a once-weekly treatment option for adults with GHD.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41420532 · DOI · PMC13183427
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Acromegaly: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management [5]
- Research article International Consensus Guideline on Small for Gestational Age: Etiology and Management From Infancy to Early Adulthood [6]
- Research article Current and investigational medications for the treatment of sarcopenia [7]
- Research article Consensus on criteria for acromegaly diagnosis and remission [8]
- Research article Endocrine responses of the stress system to different types of exercise [9]
- Research article Safety of growth hormone replacement in survivors of cancer and intracranial and pituitary tumours: a consensus statement [10]
References
- Yuen KCJ, Hjortebjerg R, Ganeshalingam AA, Clemmons DR, Frystyk J. Growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis in health and disease states: an update on the role of intra-portal insulin. . 2024. PMID 39665021 · DOI · PMC11632222
- Marques-Pamies M, Gil J, Sampedro-Nuñez M, Valassi E, Biagetti B, Giménez-Palop O, et al.. Personalized Medicine in Acromegaly: The ACROFAST Study. . 2024. PMID 38943661 · DOI · PMC11651705
- Zhu J, Yuan K, Rana S, Jakki SL, Bhat AS, Liang L, et al.. Long-acting growth hormone in the treatment of growth hormone deficiency in children: a systematic literature review and network meta-analysis. . 2024. PMID 38580693 · DOI · PMC10997584
- Biller BMK, Gilis-Januszewska A, Doknic M, Pico AM, Fleseriu M, Raverot G, et al.. Efficacy and Safety of Once-Weekly Lonapegsomatropin in Adults With Growth Hormone Deficiency: foresiGHt Trial Results. . 2026. PMID 41420532 · DOI · PMC13183427
- Fleseriu M, Langlois F, Lim DST, Varlamov EV, Melmed S. Acromegaly: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022. PMID 36209758 · DOI
- Hokken-Koelega ACS, van der Steen M, Boguszewski MCS, Cianfarani S, Dahlgren J, Horikawa R, et al.. International Consensus Guideline on Small for Gestational Age: Etiology and Management From Infancy to Early Adulthood. Endocr Rev. 2023. PMID 36635911 · DOI · PMC10166266
- Rolland Y, Dray C, Vellas B, Barreto PS. Current and investigational medications for the treatment of sarcopenia. Metabolism. 2023. PMID 37348598 · DOI
- Giustina A, Biermasz N, Casanueva FF, Fleseriu M, Mortini P, Strasburger C, et al.. Consensus on criteria for acromegaly diagnosis and remission. Pituitary. 2024. PMID 37923946 · DOI · PMC10837217
- Athanasiou N, Bogdanis GC, Mastorakos G. Endocrine responses of the stress system to different types of exercise. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2023. PMID 36242699 · DOI · PMC10023776
- Boguszewski MCS, Boguszewski CL, Chemaitilly W, Cohen LE, Gebauer J, Higham C, et al.. Safety of growth hormone replacement in survivors of cancer and intracranial and pituitary tumours: a consensus statement. Eur J Endocrinol. 2022. PMID 35319491 · DOI · PMC9066587
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.