Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (613 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A small, unpaired gland situated in the sella turcica. It is connected to the hypothalamus by a short stalk which is called the infundibulum.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Gland, Pituitary; Glands, Pituitary; Pituitary Glands; Hypophysis; Hypophyses; Hypophysis Cerebri; Cerebri, Hypophysis; Cerebrus, Hypophysis.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Endocrine Glands; Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System
- Narrower topics
- Pituitary Gland, Anterior; Pituitary Gland, Intermediate; Pituitary Gland, Posterior
- See also
- Hypophysectomy
Related concepts
- Sella Turcica
- Hypothalamus
- Infundibulum
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 67,257 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Pituitary Gland” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 2,278 of them (3.4%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 52,270 records.
Reviews account for 4,835 records (7.2%) and meta-analyses for 49. Randomized controlled trials number 263 (0.4%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 52,270 |
| 2000-2009 | 7,468 |
| 2010-2019 | 5,241 |
| 2020 onward | 2,278 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 4,835 | 7.2% |
| Meta-analyses | 49 | 0.1% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 263 | 0.4% |
Method: PubMed query "Pituitary Gland"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in neuroscience
Neuroscience draws on tools with different strengths: cellular and animal work can manipulate circuits directly, while human imaging and electrophysiology observe the living brain at lower resolution. Small imaging studies are prone to false positives, and findings in animals do not always carry over to people. Clinical neurology and psychiatry rely on trials and cohort studies whose outcomes are often symptom scales. Check the species, the sample size, how the outcome was measured and whether results were replicated.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Endocrine-Disrupting Air Pollutants and Their Effects on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis | 2020 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 83 | cc by PMID 33276521 · DOI · PMC7731392 |
| Single nucleus multi-omics regulatory landscape of the murine pituitary | 2021 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 65 | cc by PMID 33976139 · DOI · PMC8113460 |
| Differential Regulation of Gonadotropins as Revealed by Transcriptomes of Distinct LH and FSH Cells of Fish Pituitary | 2021 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 38 | cc by PMID 34204216 · DOI · PMC8234412 |
| Endocrinology at a Miniature Level: Pluripotent Stem-Cell-Derived Organoid Models of Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axes | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42072679 · DOI · PMC13113095 |
Endocrine-Disrupting Air Pollutants and Their Effects on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Anthropogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can contaminate air, soil, and water.
- Closing excerpt
- Although the studies included herein include multiple exposure routes, all the studies indicate receptor interactions that can occur from inhalation and the associated effects of all compounds on the HPG axis and subsequent fertility.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (164 words)
Anthropogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can contaminate air, soil, and water. Human exposures to EDCs occur through inhalation, absorption, and ingestion. EDCs act by disrupting various pathways in the endocrine system. When the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is disrupted by EDCs, there can be effects on fertility in both men and women. Not only can fertility be indirectly affected by EDC disruptions of the HPG axis, but EDCs can also directly affect the menstrual cycle and sperm morphology. In this review, we will discuss the current findings on EDCs that can be inhaled. This review examines effects of exposure to prominent EDCs: brominated and organophosphate flame retardants, diesel exhaust, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, cadmium and lead, TCDD, and polychlorinated biphenyls on fertility through alterations that disrupt the HPG axis and fertility through inhalation. Although the studies included herein include multiple exposure routes, all the studies indicate receptor interactions that can occur from inhalation and the associated effects of all compounds on the HPG axis and subsequent fertility.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 33276521 · DOI · PMC7731392
Single nucleus multi-omics regulatory landscape of the murine pituitary [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- To provide a multi-omics resource and investigate transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, we profile the transcriptome, chromatin accessibility, and methylation status of over 70,000 single nuclei (sn) from adult mouse pituitaries.
- Closing excerpt
- edu.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (150 words)
To provide a multi-omics resource and investigate transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, we profile the transcriptome, chromatin accessibility, and methylation status of over 70,000 single nuclei (sn) from adult mouse pituitaries. Paired snRNAseq and snATACseq datasets from individual animals highlight a continuum between developmental epigenetically-encoded cell types and transcriptionally-determined transient cell states. Co-accessibility analysis-based identification of a putative Fshb cis-regulatory domain that overlaps the fertility-linked rs11031006 human polymorphism, followed by experimental validation illustrate the use of this resource for hypothesis generation. We also identify transcriptional and chromatin accessibility programs distinguishing each major cell type. Regulons, which are co-regulated gene sets sharing binding sites for a common transcription factor driver, recapitulate cell type clustering. We identify both cell type-specific and sex-specific regulons that are highly correlated with promoter accessibility, but not with methylation state, supporting the centrality of chromatin accessibility in shaping cell-defining transcriptional programs. The sn multi-omics atlas is accessible at snpituitaryatlas.princeton.edu.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 33976139 · DOI · PMC8113460
Differential Regulation of Gonadotropins as Revealed by Transcriptomes of Distinct LH and FSH Cells of Fish Pituitary [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- From mammals to fish, reproduction is driven by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) temporally secreted from the pituitary gland.
- Closing excerpt
- Comparing these novel transcriptomes to that of rat gonadotrophs revealed conserved genes that might specifically contribute to each gonadotropin activity in mammals, suggesting conserved mechanisms controlling the differential regulation of gonadotropins in vertebrates.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (158 words)
From mammals to fish, reproduction is driven by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) temporally secreted from the pituitary gland. Teleost fish are an excellent model for addressing the unique regulation and function of each gonadotropin cell since, unlike mammals, they synthesize and secrete LH and FSH from distinct cells. Only very distant vertebrate classes (such as fish and birds) demonstrate the mono-hormonal strategy, suggesting a potential convergent evolution. Cell-specific transcriptome analysis of double-labeled transgenic tilapia expressing GFP and RFP in LH or FSH cells, respectively, yielded genes specifically enriched in each cell type, revealing differences in hormone regulation, receptor expression, cell signaling, and electrical properties. Each cell type expresses a unique GPCR signature that reveals the direct regulation of metabolic and homeostatic hormones. Comparing these novel transcriptomes to that of rat gonadotrophs revealed conserved genes that might specifically contribute to each gonadotropin activity in mammals, suggesting conserved mechanisms controlling the differential regulation of gonadotropins in vertebrates.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 34204216 · DOI · PMC8234412
Endocrinology at a Miniature Level: Pluripotent Stem-Cell-Derived Organoid Models of Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axes [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have proven outstanding potential to revolutionize biomedical research.
- Closing excerpt
- By offering this wide perspective, our review will also serve as a key resource for researchers navigating the evolving landscape of PSC-derived organoid technologies in endocrinology.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (141 words)
Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have proven outstanding potential to revolutionize biomedical research. Specifically, their capacity to form 3D multicellular systems that recapitulate organ development and biology, known as organoids, has transformed basic and translational research. The groundbreaking technology is also being applied to the intricate hypothalamus-pituitary (HP) axes, including the target organs (such as gonads, thyroid and adrenal glands). These HP axes govern critical physiological processes, including reproduction, metabolism and stress. Here, we provide an overview of PSC-derived organoid models that are part of the HP axes, both as individual and multi-organ systems, and evaluate their culturing conditions, phenotypic characteristics, advantages, drawbacks and challenges, as well as their potential for disease modeling and therapeutic discovery. By offering this wide perspective, our review will also serve as a key resource for researchers navigating the evolving landscape of PSC-derived organoid technologies in endocrinology.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42072679 · DOI · PMC13113095
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article 60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The hypothalamo-prolactin axis [5]
- Research article Central regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis under physiological and pathophysiological conditions [6]
- Research article 60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis [7]
- Research article Hypopituitarism [8]
- Research article Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: a clinical and pathophysiological approach [9]
- Research article The Molecular Pathophysiology of Concussive Brain Injury - an Update [10]
References
- Plunk EC, Richards SM. Endocrine-Disrupting Air Pollutants and Their Effects on the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis. . 2020. PMID 33276521 · DOI · PMC7731392
- Ruf-Zamojski F, Zhang Z, Zamojski M, Smith GR, Mendelev N, Liu H, et al.. Single nucleus multi-omics regulatory landscape of the murine pituitary. . 2021. PMID 33976139 · DOI · PMC8113460
- Hollander-Cohen L, Golan M, Levavi-Sivan B. Differential Regulation of Gonadotropins as Revealed by Transcriptomes of Distinct LH and FSH Cells of Fish Pituitary. . 2021. PMID 34204216 · DOI · PMC8234412
- Abaylı B, Van Gestel U, Vankelecom H, Laporte E. Endocrinology at a Miniature Level: Pluripotent Stem-Cell-Derived Organoid Models of Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axes. . 2026. PMID 42072679 · DOI · PMC13113095
- Grattan DR. 60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The hypothalamo-prolactin axis. J Endocrinol. 2015. PMID 26101377 · DOI · PMC4515538
- Fekete C, Lechan RM. Central regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Endocr Rev. 2014. PMID 24423980 · DOI · PMC3963261
- Plant TM. 60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. J Endocrinol. 2015. PMID 25901041 · DOI · PMC4498991
- Higham CE, Johannsson G, Shalet SM. Hypopituitarism. Lancet. 2016. PMID 27041067 · DOI
- Tanriverdi F, Schneider HJ, Aimaretti G, Masel BE, Casanueva FF, Kelestimur F. Pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: a clinical and pathophysiological approach. Endocr Rev. 2015. PMID 25950715 · DOI
- Barkhoudarian G, Hovda DA, Giza CC. The Molecular Pathophysiology of Concussive Brain Injury - an Update. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2016. PMID 27154851 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.