Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (949 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A systemic autoimmune disorder that typically affects medium and large arteries, usually leading to occlusive granulomatous vasculitis with transmural infiltrate containing multinucleated giant cells. The temporal artery is commonly involved. This disorder appears primarily in people over the age of 50. Symptoms include fever; fatigue; headache; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed)
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Arteritides, Giant Cell; Arteritis, Giant Cell; Giant Cell Arteritides; Arteritis, Giant Cell, Horton; Arteritis, Giant Cell, Horton's; Giant Cell Arteritis, Horton; Horton Disease; Horton Giant Cell Arteritis.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Vasculitis, Central Nervous System; Arteritis; Skin Diseases, Vascular
- See also
- Polymyalgia Rheumatica
Related concepts
- Arteries
- Giant Cells
- Temporal Artery
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Headache
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 8,292 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Giant Cell Arteritis” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 1,841 of them (22.2%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 3,168 records.
Reviews account for 1,389 records (16.8%) and meta-analyses for 83. Randomized controlled trials number 66 (0.8%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 3,168 |
| 2000-2009 | 1,458 |
| 2010-2019 | 1,825 |
| 2020 onward | 1,841 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 1,389 | 16.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 83 | 1.0% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 66 | 0.8% |
Method: PubMed query "Giant Cell Arteritis"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in cardiovascular medicine
Cardiovascular medicine has an unusually large body of randomized trials, so the type of outcome matters: hard clinical events such as death, heart attack and stroke carry more weight than changes in blood pressure, cholesterol or imaging markers that only predict risk. Observational studies can show associations but are confounded by age, lifestyle and other illness. Check whether a result is about prevention or treatment, the baseline risk of participants, and the absolute rather than only the relative size of any benefit.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Somatostatin Receptor PET/MR Imaging of Inflammation in Patients With Large Vessel Vasculitis and Atherosclerosis | 2023 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 63 | cc by PMID 36697134 · DOI · PMC9883634 |
| [Systematic review to estimate the prevalence of inflammatory rheumatic diseases in Germany. German version] | 2023 | Systematic review Design not recorded in structured metadata | 36 | cc by PMID 36592211 · DOI · PMC10627889 |
| Giant cell arteritis: reviewing the advancing diagnostics and management | 2023 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 34 | cc by PMID 36788362 · DOI · PMC9927059 |
| Crosstalk between macrophages and fibroblasts contributes to inflammation and damage in giant cell arteritis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 40795165 · DOI · PMC13017568 |
Somatostatin Receptor PET/MR Imaging of Inflammation in Patients With Large Vessel Vasculitis and Atherosclerosis [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundAssessing inflammatory disease activity in large vessel vasculitis (LVV) can be challenging by conventional measures.
- Closing excerpt
- (PET Imaging of Giant Cell and Takayasu Arteritis [PITA], NCT04071691; Residual Inflammation and Plaque Progression Long-Term Evaluation [RIPPLE], NCT04073810).
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (253 words)
BackgroundAssessing inflammatory disease activity in large vessel vasculitis (LVV) can be challenging by conventional measures.ObjectivesWe aimed to investigate somatostatin receptor 2 (SST2) as a novel inflammation-specific molecular imaging target in LVV.MethodsIn a prospective, observational cohort study, in vivo arterial SST2 expression was assessed by positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging (PET/MRI) using 68Ga-DOTATATE and 18F-FET-βAG-TOCA. Ex vivo mapping of the imaging target was performed using immunofluorescence microscopy; imaging mass cytometry; and bulk, single-cell, and single-nucleus RNA sequencing.ResultsSixty-one participants (LVV: n = 27; recent atherosclerotic myocardial infarction of ≤2 weeks: n = 25; control subjects with an oncologic indication for imaging: n = 9) were included. Index vessel SST2 maximum tissue-to-blood ratio was 61.8% (P 2 signal was not elevated in any of the control subjects. SST2 PET/MRI was generally consistent with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET/computed tomography imaging in LVV patients with contemporaneous clinical scans but with very low background signal in the brain and heart, allowing for unimpeded assessment of nearby coronary, myocardial, and intracranial artery involvement. Clinically effective treatment for LVV was associated with a 0.49 ± 0.24 (standard error of the mean [SEM]) (P = 0.04; 22.3%) reduction in the SST2 maximum tissue-to-blood ratio after 9.3 ± 3.2 months. SST2 expression was localized to macrophages, pericytes, and perivascular adipocytes in vasculitis specimens, with specific receptor binding confirmed by autoradiography. SSTR2-expressing macrophages coexpressed proinflammatory markers.ConclusionsSST2 PET/MRI holds major promise for diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring in LVV. (PET Imaging of Giant Cell and Takayasu Arteritis [PITA], NCT04071691; Residual Inflammation and Plaque Progression Long-Term Evaluation [RIPPLE], NCT04073810).
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36697134 · DOI · PMC9883634
[Systematic review to estimate the prevalence of inflammatory rheumatic diseases in Germany. German version] [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectiveTo update the estimated prevalence of inflammatory rheumatic diseases (IRD) in Germany.
- Closing excerpt
- In the absence of multistage population studies, the available data are overall uncertain sources for prevalence estimates at moderate to high risk of bias.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (243 words)
ObjectiveTo update the estimated prevalence of inflammatory rheumatic diseases (IRD) in Germany.MethodsA systematic literature search in PubMed and Web of Science (last search 8 November 2022) identified original articles (regional and nationwide surveys and routine data analyses for arthritides, connective tissue diseases, and vasculitides) on the prevalence for the period 2014-2022. Data sources, collection period, case definition, and risk of bias are reported. The prevalences were estimated from available national data, with consideration of international data.ResultsScreening by 2 authors yielded 263 hits, of which 18 routine data analyses and 2 surveys met the inclusion criteria. Prevalence data ranged from 0.42% to 1.85% (rheumatoid arthritis), 0.32-0.5% (ankylosing spondylitis), 0.11-0.32% (psoriatic arthritis), 0.037-0.14% (systemic lupus erythematosus), 0.07-0.77% (Sjoegren's disease/sicca syndrome), 0.14-0.15% (polymyalgia rheumatica, ≥ 40 years), 0.04-0.05% (giant cell arteritis, ≥ 50 years), and 0.015-0.026% (ANCA-associated vasculitis). The risk of bias was moderate in 13 and high in 7 studies. Based on the results, we estimate the prevalence of IRD in Germany to be 2.2-3.0%, which corresponds to approximately 1.5-2.1 million affected individuals. Prevalence data of juvenile idiopathic arthritis was reported to be around 0.10% (0.07-0.10%) of patients 0-18 years old, corresponding to about 14,000 children and adolescents in Germany.ConclusionThis systematic review shows an increase in the prevalence of IRD in Germany, which is almost exclusively based on routine data analyses. In the absence of multistage population studies, the available data are overall uncertain sources for prevalence estimates at moderate to high risk of bias.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36592211 · DOI · PMC10627889
Giant cell arteritis: reviewing the advancing diagnostics and management [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) is well known to be a critical ischaemic disease that requires immediate medical recognition to initiate treatment and where one in five people still suffer visual loss.
- Closing excerpt
- The aim of this review was to present the latest advances in GCA that have the potential to influence routine clinical practice.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (129 words)
Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) is well known to be a critical ischaemic disease that requires immediate medical recognition to initiate treatment and where one in five people still suffer visual loss. The immunopathophysiology has continued to be characterised, and the influencing of ageing in the development of GCA is beginning to be understood. Recent national and international guidelines have supported the directed use of cranial ultrasound to reduce diagnostic delay and improve clinical outcomes. Immediate high dose glucocorticoids remain the standard emergency treatment for GCA, with a number of targeted agents that have been shown in clinical trials to have superior clinical efficacy and steroid sparing effects. The aim of this review was to present the latest advances in GCA that have the potential to influence routine clinical practice.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36788362 · DOI · PMC9927059
Crosstalk between macrophages and fibroblasts contributes to inflammation and damage in giant cell arteritis [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectivesGiant cell arteritis (GCA) is a large vessel vasculitis characterized by arterial wall inflammation and remodelling.
- Closing excerpt
- Serum tenascin-C is a candidate biomarker for GCA diagnosis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (324 words)
ObjectivesGiant cell arteritis (GCA) is a large vessel vasculitis characterized by arterial wall inflammation and remodelling. Macrophages and fibroblasts are abundantly present in arteries affected by GCA, but their crosstalk in GCA pathogenesis is largely unknown. Here we investigated the interaction between macrophages and fibroblasts in GCA-affected arteries and in vitro.MethodsImmunostaining was performed to detect macrophages (CD68, CD206, FRβ), fibroblasts (CD90, CD200), GM-CSF, M-CSF, IL-6, MMP-3 and tenascin-C in GCA-positive temporal arteries (n = 9) and aorta tissues (n = 9). Serum tenascin-C levels were measured by ELISA in GCA patients (n = 36) and healthy controls (n = 46). In vitro, monocytes isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy donors (n = 10) were incubated with GM-CSF or M-CSF for 8 days to induce macrophage differentiation. GM-CSF/M-CSF-macrophage-conditioned medium (MCM) was added to human aortic adventitial fibroblast (HAoAF) cultures for 24 h. mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines(IL-6, IL-1β), growth factors (GM-CSF, M-CSF), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-1, MMP-3), chemokines (CCL2, CX3CL1), extracellular matrix proteins (Col1a1, Col1a2, Col3a1, fibronectin-1, tenascin-C) and phenotypic markers (fibroblast activation protein [FAP], podoplanin [PDPN], α-smooth muscle actin, CD200) in cultured fibroblasts were examined by qPCR.ResultsIn GCA-affected arteries, pro-inflammatory CD90+IL-6+ fibroblasts, but not pro-resolving CD90+CD200+ fibroblasts, were spatially associated with macrophages. Adventitial CD90+ fibroblasts expressed GM-CSF and/or M-CSF, which linked to macrophage subset distribution. In vitro, both GM-CSF- and, to a lesser extent, M-CSF-derived MCM upregulated mRNA expression of IL-6, GM-CSF, M-CSF, CCL2, PDPN and CD200 in fibroblasts. Upregulation of IL-1β, MMP-3, Col3a1 and tenascin-C and downregulation of FAP in fibroblasts was observed with GM-CSF-derived MCM. Adventitial CD90+ fibroblasts in GCA-affected temporal arteries also expressed MMP-3 and tenascin-C. Serum levels of tenascin-C in patients with treatment-naïve GCA were significantly higher than those in healthy controls, showing a good diagnostic accuracy (area under the curve 0.89).ConclusionThe interaction between fibroblasts and macrophages may contribute to the chronicity and progression of GCA and deserves further investigation. Serum tenascin-C is a candidate biomarker for GCA diagnosis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40795165 · DOI · PMC13017568
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article 2018 Update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis [5]
- Research article EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice [6]
- Research article 2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis [7]
- Research article Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: an individual patient data meta-analysis [8]
- Research article FDG-PET/CT(A) imaging in large vessel vasculitis and polymyalgia rheumatica: joint procedural recommendation of the EANM, SNMMI, and the PET Interest Group (PIG), and endorsed by the ASNC [9]
- Research article EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice: 2023 update [10]
References
- Ćorović A, Wall C, Nus M, Gopalan D, Huang Y, Imaz M, et al.. Somatostatin Receptor PET/MR Imaging of Inflammation in Patients With Large Vessel Vasculitis and Atherosclerosis. . 2023. PMID 36697134 · DOI · PMC9883634
- Albrecht K, Binder S, Minden K, Poddubnyy D, Regierer AC, Strangfeld A, et al.. [Systematic review to estimate the prevalence of inflammatory rheumatic diseases in Germany. German version]. . 2023. PMID 36592211 · DOI · PMC10627889
- Bilton EJ, Mollan SP. Giant cell arteritis: reviewing the advancing diagnostics and management. . 2023. PMID 36788362 · DOI · PMC9927059
- Xu S, Jiemy WF, Zhang A, Walinga F, Nijenhuis M, Hensema E, et al.. Crosstalk between macrophages and fibroblasts contributes to inflammation and damage in giant cell arteritis. . 2026. PMID 40795165 · DOI · PMC13017568
- Hellmich B, Agueda A, Monti S, Buttgereit F, de Boysson H, Brouwer E, et al.. 2018 Update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2020. PMID 31270110 · DOI
- Dejaco C, Ramiro S, Duftner C, Besson FL, Bley TA, Blockmans D, et al.. EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice. Ann Rheum Dis. 2018. PMID 29358285 · DOI
- Maz M, Chung SA, Abril A, Langford CA, Gorelik M, Guyatt G, et al.. 2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2021. PMID 34235884 · DOI · PMC12344528
- Mahr AD, Jover JA, Spiera RF, Hernández-García C, Fernández-Gutiérrez B, Lavalley MP, et al.. Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007. PMID 17665429 · DOI
- Slart RHJA, Writing group, Reviewer group, Members of EANM Cardiovascular, Members of EANM Infection & Inflammation, Members of Committees, et al.. FDG-PET/CT(A) imaging in large vessel vasculitis and polymyalgia rheumatica: joint procedural recommendation of the EANM, SNMMI, and the PET Interest Group (PIG), and endorsed by the ASNC. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2018. PMID 29637252 · DOI · PMC5954002
- Dejaco C, Ramiro S, Bond M, Bosch P, Ponte C, Mackie SL, et al.. EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice: 2023 update. Ann Rheum Dis. 2024. PMID 37550004 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
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