Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (610 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A class of organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of Cn(H2O)n. The largest class of organic compounds, including starch; glycogen; cellulose; polysaccharides; and simple monosaccharides.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Carbohydrate.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Chemicals and Drugs Category
- Narrower topics
- Amino Sugars; Carbasugars; Deoxy Sugars; Dietary Carbohydrates; Glycoconjugates; Glycosides; Imino Sugars; Polysaccharides; Sugar Acids; Sugar Alcohols; Sugar Phosphates; Sugars; Thiosugars
- See also
- Dietary Carbohydrates
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 2,641,116 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Carbohydrates” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 460,560 of them (17.4%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 943,085 records.
Reviews account for 203,426 records (7.7%) and meta-analyses for 13,652. Randomized controlled trials number 69,201 (2.6%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 943,085 |
| 2000-2009 | 549,052 |
| 2010-2019 | 688,419 |
| 2020 onward | 460,560 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 203,426 | 7.7% |
| Meta-analyses | 13,652 | 0.5% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 69,201 | 2.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Carbohydrates"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matrix metalloproteinase-guided targeting of vesicular stomatitis virus to tumors following systemic administration | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 0 | cc by PMID 42897128 · DOI · PMC13680497 |
| From historical dosing to precision dosing: Modernising tobramycin monitoring in people with cystic fibrosis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 0 | cc by PMID 42891690 · DOI · PMC13676526 |
| Combined effects of heat and rhamnolipids against Listeria monocytogenes: Influence of water activity and pH | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 0 | cc by PMID 42886415 · DOI · PMC13675345 |
Matrix metalloproteinase-guided targeting of vesicular stomatitis virus to tumors following systemic administration [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The lack of tumor-specific targeting by oncolytic viruses (OVs) restricts their therapeutic potential.
- Closing excerpt
- This preclinical work demonstrates a new tumor-specific targeting strategy of VSV for enhanced immunotherapy safety with superior efficacy.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (164 words)
The lack of tumor-specific targeting by oncolytic viruses (OVs) restricts their therapeutic potential. Here, we report a "cap-linker" strategy to modify the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) glycoprotein (G protein, VSV-GIN). The modified VSV (Pro-VSVIN) loses its ability to infect cells until present in the tumor microenvironment, where the linker is cleaved by tumor-enriched matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). When Pro-VSVIN is armed with a single-chain IL-12 (Pro-VSVIN-IL-12) and systemically injected into MC38 tumor-bearing mice, Pro-VSVIN-IL-12 eradicates established tumors while avoiding systemic toxicity, and elicits long-term anti-tumor immune memory. Systemic administration of Pro-VSVIN-IL-12 also markedly inhibits the growth of metastatic cancers in the lung. The efficacy of Pro-VSVIN-IL-12 was further improved when combined with PD-1 checkpoint blockade. Compared to WT VSVIN that carries IL-12, intravenously injected Pro-VSVIN-IL-12 leads to strong Th1 immunity, near abolishment of regulatory T cells, and potent CD8+ T cell activation and clonal expansion in tumors. This preclinical work demonstrates a new tumor-specific targeting strategy of VSV for enhanced immunotherapy safety with superior efficacy.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42897128 · DOI · PMC13680497
From historical dosing to precision dosing: Modernising tobramycin monitoring in people with cystic fibrosis [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundHistorical therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) strategies for intravenous tobramycin in people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) were developed in the pre-CFTR modulator era and relied predominantly on clearance-based monitoring to minimise toxicity.
- Closing excerpt
- It identified pwCF at risk of both inappropriate dose reduction and underexposure, supporting precision dosing in the evolving CF population.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (250 words)
BackgroundHistorical therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) strategies for intravenous tobramycin in people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) were developed in the pre-CFTR modulator era and relied predominantly on clearance-based monitoring to minimise toxicity. Contemporary pwCF demonstrate greater variability in body composition and clinical phenotype, potentially limiting the applicability of historical dosing approaches.MethodsIn December 2024, our adult cystic fibrosis centre implemented Bayesian-guided TDM (TDMx®) for intravenous tobramycin. Two serum concentrations obtained during the first dosing interval were used to estimate maximum concentration (Cmax), minimum concentration (Cmin), and 24-hour area under the concentration-time curve (AUC0- 24), enabling model-informed dose individualisation. Outcomes were evaluated in 46 pwCF receiving intravenous tobramycin for pulmonary exacerbations.ResultsPrior to implementation, 74% of pwCF had not undergone formal dose review for more than three years. Following introduction of Bayesian monitoring, 98% received 24-hourly dosing compared with 33% under the historical protocol. Among pwCF with previous admissions, 72% required dose adjustment. Target Cmax (16-20 mg/L) was achieved in 65.2% of participants, while only 17.4% achieved the target AUC0- 24 (> 70 mg·h/L); no participant exceeded the upper AUC target of 100 mg·h/L. Thirteen pwCF who would previously have undergone dose reduction because of levels of >1 mg/L at 12 h demonstrated appropriate exposure on Bayesian assessment (mean Cmax 17 mg/L; mean AUC 74 mg·h/L). No nephrotoxicity attributable to the protocol was observed.ConclusionsBayesian-guided TDM was feasible, safe, and substantially altered tobramycin prescribing practice. It identified pwCF at risk of both inappropriate dose reduction and underexposure, supporting precision dosing in the evolving CF population.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42891690 · DOI · PMC13676526
Combined effects of heat and rhamnolipids against Listeria monocytogenes: Influence of water activity and pH [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Foodborne diseases remain a major public health concern, with Listeria monocytogenes being one of the most significant foodborne pathogens due to its high mortality rate and persistence in food-processing environments.
- Closing excerpt
- monocytogenes, particularly in low-water-activity foods with high salt or sugar contents.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (196 words)
Foodborne diseases remain a major public health concern, with Listeria monocytogenes being one of the most significant foodborne pathogens due to its high mortality rate and persistence in food-processing environments. This study evaluated the combined effects of heat, pH, and water activity on the antimicrobial activity of rhamnolipids (RL) against L. monocytogenes within the framework of hurdle technology. Treatments were performed at 62 °C for 10 min under different pH and water activity (aw) conditions adjusted with NaCl or sucrose. Increasing NaCl concentrations reduced the efficacy of heat treatment alone; however, its combination with RL produced a synergistic effect, achieving reductions exceeding 5 log CFU/mL in low-aw media containing NaCl. In sucrose-containing media, the combined treatment reduced viable populations by 4-5 log CFU/mL across all pH and aw conditions evaluated. The hurdles also showed potential as a sanitizer formulation against L. monocytogenes attached to stainless steel surfaces, while scanning electron microscopy revealed extensive structural damage to treated cells. The combination of moderate heat and rhamnolipids exhibited synergistic antimicrobial activity under a range of pH and water activity conditions, representing a prospective strategy for controlling L. monocytogenes, particularly in low-water-activity foods with high salt or sugar contents.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42886415 · DOI · PMC13675345
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Dapagliflozin in Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure: Primary Results of the DAPA ACT HF-TIMI 68 Randomized Clinical Trial and Meta-Analysis of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors in Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure [4]
- Research article Cardiovascular and renal outcomes of dual combination therapies with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose transport protein 2 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Automated Insulin Delivery Systems and Glucose Management in Children and Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [6]
- Research article The effect of exercise characteristics on HbA1c and other cardiovascular risk factors in adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials [7]
- Research article Antipsychotic Drugs and Dysregulated Glucose Homeostasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [8]
- Research article Effects of empagliflozin on conventional and exploratory acute and chronic kidney outcomes: an individual participant-level meta-analysis [9]
References
- Theune EV, Theune WC, Ahmadi E, Chiari CC, Singh N, Geyer R, et al.. Matrix metalloproteinase-guided targeting of vesicular stomatitis virus to tumors following systemic administration. . 2026. PMID 42897128 · DOI · PMC13680497
- Johnson E, Williams M, Henderson D, Riddles T, Reid D, Smith D, et al.. From historical dosing to precision dosing: Modernising tobramycin monitoring in people with cystic fibrosis. . 2026. PMID 42891690 · DOI · PMC13676526
- Gomes GV, Nitschke M. Combined effects of heat and rhamnolipids against Listeria monocytogenes: Influence of water activity and pH. . 2026. PMID 42886415 · DOI · PMC13675345
- Berg DD, Patel SM, Haller PM, Cange AL, Palazzolo MG, Bellavia A, et al.. Dapagliflozin in Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure: Primary Results of the DAPA ACT HF-TIMI 68 Randomized Clinical Trial and Meta-Analysis of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors in Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure. Circulation. 2025. PMID 40884036 · DOI · PMC12910484
- Shokravi A, Seth J, Mancini GBJ. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes of dual combination therapies with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose transport protein 2 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2025. PMID 41029853 · DOI · PMC12487346
- de Visser HS, Waraich S, Chhabra M, Yamamoto J, Zenlea I, Askin N, et al.. Automated Insulin Delivery Systems and Glucose Management in Children and Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2025. PMID 40920375 · DOI · PMC12418225
- Michielsen M, Yagiz J, Hanssens M, Claes J, Geuns L, Gojevic T, et al.. The effect of exercise characteristics on HbA1c and other cardiovascular risk factors in adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2025. PMID 41457265 · DOI · PMC12859889
- Smith ECC, Agarwal SM, Panganiban KJ, Maksyutynska K, Monteiro J, Lee J, et al.. Antipsychotic Drugs and Dysregulated Glucose Homeostasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2025. PMID 40864439 · DOI · PMC12392150
- Herrington WG, Che ZJ, Sardell R, Roddick AJ, Judge PK, Wanner C, et al.. Effects of empagliflozin on conventional and exploratory acute and chronic kidney outcomes: an individual participant-level meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2025. PMID 41082889 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.