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Anatomy and Physiology 2e
OpenStax · 198 sections in 29 chapters. Each section is its own page.
Front matter
An Introduction to the Human Body
Introduction
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Structural Organization of the Human Body
Functions of Human Life
Requirements for Human Life
Homeostasis
Anatomical Terminology
Medical Imaging
The Chemical Level of Organization
Introduction
Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter
Chemical Bonds
Chemical Reactions
Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
The Cellular Level of Organization
Introduction
The Cell Membrane
The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
The Nucleus and DNA Replication
Protein Synthesis
Cell Growth and Division
Cellular Differentiation
The Tissue Level of Organization
Introduction
Types of Tissues
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
Muscle Tissue and Motion
Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
Tissue Injury and Aging
The Integumentary System
Introduction
Layers of the Skin
Accessory Structures of the Skin
Functions of the Integumentary System
Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System
Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
Introduction
The Functions of the Skeletal System
Bone Classification
Bone Structure
Bone Formation and Development
Fractures: Bone Repair
Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue
Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
Axial Skeleton
Introduction
Divisions of the Skeletal System
The Skull
The Vertebral Column
The Thoracic Cage
Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
The Appendicular Skeleton
Introduction
The Pectoral Girdle
Bones of the Upper Limb
The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
Bones of the Lower Limb
Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
Joints
Introduction
Classification of Joints
Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
Types of Body Movements
Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
Development of Joints
Muscle Tissue
Introduction
Overview of Muscle Tissues
Skeletal Muscle
Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
Types of Muscle Fibers
Exercise and Muscle Performance
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Smooth Muscle
Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
The Muscular System
Introduction
Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems
Naming Skeletal Muscles
Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back
Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax
Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs
Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs
The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Introduction
Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System
Nervous Tissue
The Function of Nervous Tissue
The Action Potential
Communication Between Neurons
Anatomy of the Nervous System
Introduction
The Embryologic Perspective
The Central Nervous System
Circulation and the Central Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Somatic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
Introduction
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis
Central Control
Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System
The Neurological Exam
Introduction
Overview of the Neurological Exam
The Mental Status Exam
The Cranial Nerve Exam
The Sensory and Motor Exams
The Coordination and Gait Exams
The Endocrine System
Introduction
An Overview of the Endocrine System
Hormones
The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
The Thyroid Gland
The Parathyroid Glands
The Adrenal Glands
The Pineal Gland
Gonadal and Placental Hormones
The Endocrine Pancreas
Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
Development and Aging of the Endocrine System
The Cardiovascular System: Blood
Introduction
An Overview of Blood
Production of the Formed Elements
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes and Platelets
Hemostasis
Blood Typing
The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Introduction
Heart Anatomy
Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac Physiology
Development of the Heart
The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
Introduction
Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance
Capillary Exchange
Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
Circulatory Pathways
Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation
The Lymphatic and Immune System
Introduction
Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response
The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types
The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies
The Immune Response against Pathogens
Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
The Respiratory System
Introduction
Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
The Lungs
The Process of Breathing
Gas Exchange
Transport of Gases
Modifications in Respiratory Functions
Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
The Digestive System
Introduction
Overview of the Digestive System
Digestive System Processes and Regulation
The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
The Stomach
The Small and Large Intestines
Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder
Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look
Metabolism and Nutrition
Introduction
Overview of Metabolic Reactions
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Lipid Metabolism
Protein Metabolism
Metabolic States of the Body
Energy and Heat Balance
Nutrition and Diet
The Urinary System
Introduction
Physical Characteristics of Urine
Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
Physiology of Urine Formation
Tubular Reabsorption
Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
The Urinary System and Homeostasis
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Introduction
Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
Water Balance
Electrolyte Balance
Acid-Base Balance
Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
The Reproductive System
Introduction
Anatomy and Physiology of the Testicular Reproductive System
Anatomy and Physiology of the Ovarian Reproductive System
Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Development and Inheritance
Introduction
Fertilization
Embryonic Development
Fetal Development
Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth
Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages
Lactation
Patterns of Inheritance
Attribution. Anatomy and Physiology 2e, OpenStax, Rice University, and the original contributing authors credited in the preface. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. CC BY 4.0. Original book at OpenStax ↗. EvidenceHelix text edition adapted from the pinned OpenStax source: CNXML converted to HTML; original prose, learning objectives, tables, exercises, glossary and captions retained. Images are not reproduced; external figure links and descriptions replace them. This is not the original full illustrated edition. No new scientific content was added. Source edition content may differ from current OpenStax revisions.