Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (750 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Poisonous animal secretions forming fluid mixtures of many different enzymes, toxins, and other substances. These substances are produced in specialized glands and secreted through specialized delivery systems (nematocysts, spines, fangs, etc.) for disabling prey or predator.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Venom.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Bodily Secretions; Complex Mixtures; Toxins, Biological
- Narrower topics
- Amphibian Venoms; Arthropod Venoms; Cnidarian Venoms; Exenatide; Fish Venoms; Mollusk Venoms; Snake Venoms
- See also
- Antivenins
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 57,341 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Venoms” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 6,777 of them (11.8%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 26,015 records.
Reviews account for 4,150 records (7.2%) and meta-analyses for 137. Randomized controlled trials number 620 (1.1%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 26,015 |
| 2000-2009 | 11,996 |
| 2010-2019 | 12,553 |
| 2020 onward | 6,777 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 4,150 | 7.2% |
| Meta-analyses | 137 | 0.2% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 620 | 1.1% |
Method: PubMed query "Venoms"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Computational exploration of global venoms for antimicrobial discovery with Venomics artificial intelligence | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 20 | cc by PMID 40645962 · DOI · PMC12254355 |
| Animal Venom in Modern Medicine: A Review of Therapeutic Applications | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 14 | cc by PMID 40864047 · DOI · PMC12390438 |
| Comparative venomics suggests an evolutionary adaption of spider venom from predation to defense | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 9 | cc by PMID 41131346 · DOI · PMC12550024 |
| Naja atra SVPLA2 Aggravates Acute Kidney Injury Through Metabolic Reprogramming-Dependent Macrophage Polarization and Defective Efferocytosis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 42043019 · DOI · PMC13120190 |
Computational exploration of global venoms for antimicrobial discovery with Venomics artificial intelligence [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The rise of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, particularly gram-negative bacteria, highlights the urgent need for novel therapeutics.
- Closing excerpt
- Our findings demonstrate that venoms are a rich source of previously hidden antimicrobial scaffolds, and that integrating large-scale computational mining with experimental validation can accelerate the discovery of urgently needed antibiotics.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (199 words)
The rise of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, particularly gram-negative bacteria, highlights the urgent need for novel therapeutics. Drug-resistant infections now contribute to approximately 5 million deaths annually, yet traditional antibiotic discovery has significantly stagnated. Venoms form an immense and largely untapped reservoir of bioactive molecules with antimicrobial potential. In this study, we mined global venomics datasets to identify new antimicrobial candidates. Using deep learning, we explored 16,123 venom proteins, generating 40,626,260 venom-encrypted peptides. From these, we identified 386 candidates that are structurally and functionally distinct from known antimicrobial peptides. They display high net charge and elevated hydrophobicity, characteristics conducive to bacterial-membrane disruption. Structural studies revealed that many of these peptides adopt flexible conformations that transition to α-helical conformations in membrane-mimicking environments, supporting their antimicrobial potential. Of the 58 peptides selected for experimental validation, 53 display potent antimicrobial activity. Mechanistic assays indicated that they primarily exert their effects through bacterial-membrane depolarization, mirroring AMP-like mechanisms. In a murine model of Acinetobacter baumannii infection, lead peptides significantly reduced bacterial burden without observable toxicity. Our findings demonstrate that venoms are a rich source of previously hidden antimicrobial scaffolds, and that integrating large-scale computational mining with experimental validation can accelerate the discovery of urgently needed antibiotics.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40645962 · DOI · PMC12254355
Animal Venom in Modern Medicine: A Review of Therapeutic Applications [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Animal venoms are complex biochemical secretions rich in highly potent and selective bioactive molecules, including peptides, enzymes, and small organic compounds.
- Closing excerpt
- We also discuss current therapeutic limitations and how venom-derived compounds may address unmet needs in specific disorders.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (196 words)
Animal venoms are complex biochemical secretions rich in highly potent and selective bioactive molecules, including peptides, enzymes, and small organic compounds. Once associated primarily with toxicity, these venoms are now recognized as a promising source of therapeutic agents for a wide range of medical conditions. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the pharmacological potential of venom-derived compounds, highlighting their mechanisms of action, such as ion channel modulation, receptor targeting, and enzyme inhibition. Successful venom-derived drugs like captopril and ziconotide exemplify the translational potential of this biological arsenal. We discuss therapeutic applications in cardiovascular diseases, chronic pain, cancer, thrombosis, and infectious diseases, as well as emerging peptide candidates in clinical development. Technological advancements in omics, structural biology, and synthetic peptide engineering have significantly enhanced the discovery and optimization of venom-based therapeutics. Despite challenges related to stability, immunogenicity, and ecological sustainability, the integration of AI-driven drug discovery and personalized medicine is expected to accelerate progress in this field. By synthesizing current findings and future directions, this review underscores the transformative potential of animal venoms in modern pharmacotherapy and drug development. We also discuss current therapeutic limitations and how venom-derived compounds may address unmet needs in specific disorders.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40864047 · DOI · PMC12390438
Comparative venomics suggests an evolutionary adaption of spider venom from predation to defense [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Most spiders deploy paralytic venom for prey capture, but adults of the Nurse´s thorn finger (Cheiracanthium punctorium) instead produce a predominantly defensive venom to safeguard their offspring.
- Closing excerpt
- These complex, multimodal molecular innovations in venom systems highlight nature's tendency to use the same molecular solutions for similar ecological challenges across diverse animal lineages.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (163 words)
Most spiders deploy paralytic venom for prey capture, but adults of the Nurse´s thorn finger (Cheiracanthium punctorium) instead produce a predominantly defensive venom to safeguard their offspring. Here, we characterize the molecular repertoire of C. punctorium venom to shed light on its evolutionary history. Unlike venom in other spiders, C. punctorium venom mostly comprises neurotoxic double-domain neurotoxin 19 family (CSTX) peptides and enzymes, such as phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Comparative venomics in four spiders representing two infraorders shows that CSTXs arise following the mygalomorph-araneomorph split ~300 mya by means of ancestral gene duplication and functional specialization. A gene fusion event then appeared to have merged CSTXs from two distinct clades to form the double-domain toxin. PLA2 proteins are convergently recruited to C. punctorium to fulfil a defensive function and are strikingly similar to proalgesic PLA2 proteins in bee venom. These complex, multimodal molecular innovations in venom systems highlight nature's tendency to use the same molecular solutions for similar ecological challenges across diverse animal lineages.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41131346 · DOI · PMC12550024
Naja atra SVPLA2 Aggravates Acute Kidney Injury Through Metabolic Reprogramming-Dependent Macrophage Polarization and Defective Efferocytosis [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Snakebite envenoming remains a major global health challenge.
- Closing excerpt
- Together, these findings support a model in which SVPLA2 exposure is associated with macrophage immunometabolic remodeling and impaired apoptotic cell clearance during venom-induced AKI.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (192 words)
Snakebite envenoming remains a major global health challenge. Naja atra (N. atra) envenomation induces severe acute kidney injury (AKI), largely driven by snake venom phospholipase A2 (SVPLA2). Increasing evidence suggests that immune dysregulation, in addition to direct cytotoxicity, contributes to delayed renal injury. Here, we investigated whether N. atra SVPLA2 exposure is associated with macrophage immunometabolic remodeling and functional changes relevant to AKI progression. In vivo, AKI was induced in C57BL/6J mice by intraperitoneal administration of N. atra venom, followed by treatment with the SVPLA2 inhibitor varespladib. In vitro, bone marrow-derived macrophages were exposed to venom with or without varespladib. N. atra venom exposure was associated with extensive tubular apoptosis, increased renal macrophage abundance, and elevated kidney injury biomarkers. Macrophages exhibited a shift toward a pro-inflammatory polarization signature accompanied by reduced efferocytic capacity. Targeted metabolomics revealed coordinated increases in glycolytic intermediates together with upregulation of key glycolytic enzymes. Pharmacological inhibition of SVPLA2 partially restored macrophage metabolic features and efferocytic capacity and was accompanied by attenuation of renal injury. Together, these findings support a model in which SVPLA2 exposure is associated with macrophage immunometabolic remodeling and impaired apoptotic cell clearance during venom-induced AKI.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42043019 · DOI · PMC13120190
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Differences in the HbA1c-lowering efficacy of glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues between Asians and non-Asians: a systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Applications and evolution of melittin, the quintessential membrane active peptide [6]
- Research article A meta-analysis comparing clinical effects of short- or long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists versus insulin treatment from head-to-head studies in type 2 diabetic patients [7]
- Research article Snake Envenomation [8]
- Research article Allergen immunotherapy for insect venom allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis [9]
- Research article The biology and evolution of spider venoms [10]
References
- Guan C, Torres MDT, Li S, de la Fuente-Nunez C. Computational exploration of global venoms for antimicrobial discovery with Venomics artificial intelligence. . 2025. PMID 40645962 · DOI · PMC12254355
- Kim E, Hwang DH, Mohan Prakash RL, Asirvatham RD, Lee H, Heo Y, et al.. Animal Venom in Modern Medicine: A Review of Therapeutic Applications. . 2025. PMID 40864047 · DOI · PMC12390438
- Lüddecke T, Hurka S, Dresler J, Lübcke T, von Wirth V, Lochnit G, et al.. Comparative venomics suggests an evolutionary adaption of spider venom from predation to defense. . 2025. PMID 41131346 · DOI · PMC12550024
- Liu J, Wen Z, Tang S, Wu J, Bi X, Yang Y, et al.. Naja atra SVPLA2 Aggravates Acute Kidney Injury Through Metabolic Reprogramming-Dependent Macrophage Polarization and Defective Efferocytosis. . 2026. PMID 42043019 · DOI · PMC13120190
- Kim YG, Hahn S, Oh TJ, Park KS, Cho YM. Differences in the HbA1c-lowering efficacy of glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues between Asians and non-Asians: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014. PMID 24655583 · DOI
- Guha S, Ferrie RP, Ghimire J, Ventura CR, Wu E, Sun L, et al.. Applications and evolution of melittin, the quintessential membrane active peptide. Biochem Pharmacol. 2021. PMID 34543656 · DOI · PMC9235364
- Abd El Aziz MS, Kahle M, Meier JJ, Nauck MA. A meta-analysis comparing clinical effects of short- or long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists versus insulin treatment from head-to-head studies in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017. PMID 27717195 · DOI
- Seifert SA, Armitage JO, Sanchez EE. Snake Envenomation. N Engl J Med. 2022. PMID 34986287 · DOI · PMC9854269
- Dhami S, Zaman H, Varga EM, Sturm GJ, Muraro A, Akdis CA, et al.. Allergen immunotherapy for insect venom allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy. 2017. PMID 28120424 · DOI
- Lüddecke T, Herzig V, von Reumont BM, Vilcinskas A. The biology and evolution of spider venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2022. PMID 34453398 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.