Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (750 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A tube that transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body in both the sexes. It also has a reproductive function in the male by providing a passage for sperm.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Urethras; Urethral Sphincters; Sphincter, Urethral; Urethral Sphincter; External Urinary Sphincter; External Urinary Sphincters; Sphincter, External Urinary; Urinary Sphincter, External.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Penis; Urinary Tract
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 27,126 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Urethra” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 3,289 of them (12.1%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 14,485 records.
Reviews account for 2,183 records (8.0%) and meta-analyses for 148. Randomized controlled trials number 522 (1.9%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 14,485 |
| 2000-2009 | 4,386 |
| 2010-2019 | 4,966 |
| 2020 onward | 3,289 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 2,183 | 8.0% |
| Meta-analyses | 148 | 0.5% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 522 | 1.9% |
Method: PubMed query "Urethra"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Therapeutic efficacy of biofeedback pelvic floor muscle exercise in women with dysfunctional voiding | 2021 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 22 | cc by PMID 34215820 · DOI · PMC8253800 |
| Chlamydia trachomatis transmission between the oropharynx, urethra and anorectum in men who have sex with men: a mathematical model | 2020 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 20 | cc by PMID 33198750 · DOI · PMC7670797 |
| Urethral injury in penile fracture: a narrative review | 2020 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 19 | cc by PMID 31961620 · DOI · PMC7025847 |
| Brainstem neurons coordinate the bladder and urethral sphincter for urination | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 4 | cc by PMID 42559936 · DOI · PMC13446904 |
Therapeutic efficacy of biofeedback pelvic floor muscle exercise in women with dysfunctional voiding [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Dysfunctional voiding (DV), a voiding dysfunction due to hyperactivity of the external urethral sphincter or pelvic floor muscles leading involuntary intermittent contractions during voiding, is not uncommon in neurologically normal women with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS).
- Closing excerpt
- The history of urinary tract infection in recent 1 year is a negative predictor of successful outcome.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (218 words)
Dysfunctional voiding (DV), a voiding dysfunction due to hyperactivity of the external urethral sphincter or pelvic floor muscles leading involuntary intermittent contractions during voiding, is not uncommon in neurologically normal women with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). We aimed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of biofeedback pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) in female patients with DV and to identify the therapeutic efficacy. Thirty-one patients diagnosed with DV. All participates completed the 3-month biofeedback PFMT program, which was conducted by one experienced physiotherapist. At 3 months after treatment, the assessment of treatment outcomes included global response assessment (GRA), and the changes of clinical symptoms, quality of life index, and uroflowmetry parameters. 25 (80.6%) patients had successful outcomes (GRA ≥ 2), and clinical symptoms and quality of life index significantly improved after PFMT. Additionally, uroflowmetry parameters including maximum flow rate, voided volume, voiding efficiency, total bladder capacity, voiding time, and time to maximum flow rate significantly improved after PFMT treatment. Patients with the history of recurrent urinary tract infection in recent 1 year were found to have unsatisfied therapeutic outcomes. In conclusion, biofeedback PFMT is effective in female patients with DV with significant improvements in clinical symptoms, quality of life, and uroflowmetry parameters. The history of urinary tract infection in recent 1 year is a negative predictor of successful outcome.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 34215820 · DOI · PMC8253800
Chlamydia trachomatis transmission between the oropharynx, urethra and anorectum in men who have sex with men: a mathematical model [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundIt has been presumed that Chlamydia trachomatis is transmitted between men only through anal or oral sex, but no mathematical models have tested this presumption.
- Closing excerpt
- ConclusionsOur modelling study suggests that transmission routes other than just oral and anal sex are necessary to explain the high rate of Chlamydia trachomatis infection at more than one site.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (186 words)
BackgroundIt has been presumed that Chlamydia trachomatis is transmitted between men only through anal or oral sex, but no mathematical models have tested this presumption.MethodsTo test this presumption, we created 20 compartmental mathematical models of different sexual practices that included both oral and anal sex and calibrated these models to the observed rates of Chlamydia trachomatis infection at three anatomical sites from 4888 men who have sex with men (MSM) in Melbourne Sexual Health Centre during 2018-2019.ResultsA model that included only oral and anal sex could replicate the observed rates of single-site infection at the oropharynx, urethra and rectum alone, but could not replicate infection at more than one of these sites (multisite). However, if we included transmission from sexual practices that followed one another in the same sexual episode (e.g. saliva contamination of the penis from oral sex transmitting chlamydia to the rectum by anal sex), we significantly improved the calibration of multisite infection rates substantially.ConclusionsOur modelling study suggests that transmission routes other than just oral and anal sex are necessary to explain the high rate of Chlamydia trachomatis infection at more than one site.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 33198750 · DOI · PMC7670797
Urethral injury in penile fracture: a narrative review [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectiveTo present the evolution and the recent data on the etiology, diagnosis, management and outcomes of penile fracture (PF) with concomitant urethral injury.
- Closing excerpt
- Urgent urethral reconstruction is man-datory and produces satisfactory results with low levels of complications.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (158 words)
ObjectiveTo present the evolution and the recent data on the etiology, diagnosis, management and outcomes of penile fracture (PF) with concomitant urethral injury.Materials and methodsWe searched the Pubmed database between 1998 and 2019 using the following key words: "penile fracture", "fracture of penis", "trauma to penis", "rupture of corpora cavernosa", "urethral injury", "urethral rupture" and "urethral reconstruction".ResultsThe incidence of urethral lesion in patients with PF varies by geographic region and etiology. Blood in the meatus, hematuria and voiding symptoms are highly indicative of urethral rupture. The diagnosis of PF is eminently clinical and complementary exams are not necessary. The treatment consists of urethral reconstruction and the most common complications found are urethral stenosis and urethrocutaneous fistula.ConclusionPF is an uncommon urological emergency, particularly in cases with urethral involvement. Urethral injury should be suspected in the presence of suggestive clinical signs, and diagnosis is usually clinical. Urgent urethral reconstruction is man-datory and produces satisfactory results with low levels of complications.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31961620 · DOI · PMC7025847
Brainstem neurons coordinate the bladder and urethral sphincter for urination [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Urination, a vital and conserved process of emptying urine from the urinary bladder in mammals, requires precise coordination between the bladder and external urethral sphincter (EUS) that is tightly controlled by a complex neural network.
- Closing excerpt
- Thus, we identify a cell type in the brainstem that controls the bladder-urethra coordination for urination.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (188 words)
Urination, a vital and conserved process of emptying urine from the urinary bladder in mammals, requires precise coordination between the bladder and external urethral sphincter (EUS) that is tightly controlled by a complex neural network. However, the specific subpopulation of neurons that accounts for such coordination remains unidentified, limiting the development of target-specific therapies for certain urination disorders, for example, detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia. Here, we find that cells expressing estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1+) in the pontine micturition center (PMC) initiate voiding when activated and suspend ongoing voiding when suppressed, each at 100% reliability. Transection of the pelvic nerve does not impair PMCESR1+ neurons' control of the EUS via the pudendal nerve, whereas transection of the pudendal nerve does not impair their control of the bladder via the pelvic nerve. Anatomically, PMCESR1+ neurons consist of three distinct spinal-projection-based subpopulations: one targeting the sacral parasympathetic nucleus, one innervating the dorsal gray commissure, and a third that projects to both regions, thereby enforcing the coordination of bladder contraction and sphincter relaxation in a rigid temporal sequence. Thus, we identify a cell type in the brainstem that controls the bladder-urethra coordination for urination.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42559936 · DOI · PMC13446904
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article A Comprehensive Review of Overactive Bladder Pathophysiology: On the Way to Tailored Treatment [5]
- Research article Urethral strictures [6]
- Research article Preoperative Membranous Urethral Length Measurement and Continence Recovery Following Radical Prostatectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Pathophysiology and Contributing Factors in Postprostatectomy Incontinence: A Review [8]
- Research article Urethral reconstruction using buccal mucosa or penile skin grafts: systematic review and meta-analysis [9]
- Research article Meta-analysis of complication rates of the tubularized incised plate (TIP) repair [10]
References
- Chiang CH, Jiang YH, Kuo HC. Therapeutic efficacy of biofeedback pelvic floor muscle exercise in women with dysfunctional voiding. . 2021. PMID 34215820 · DOI · PMC8253800
- Xu X, Chow EPF, Ong JJ, Hoebe CJPA, Zou Z, Hocking JS, et al.. Chlamydia trachomatis transmission between the oropharynx, urethra and anorectum in men who have sex with men: a mathematical model. . 2020. PMID 33198750 · DOI · PMC7670797
- Barros R, Ribeiro JGA, da Silva HAM, de Sá FR, Fosse AM, Favorito LA. Urethral injury in penile fracture: a narrative review. . 2020. PMID 31961620 · DOI · PMC7025847
- Li X, Li X, Li J, Qin H, Liang S, Li J, et al.. Brainstem neurons coordinate the bladder and urethral sphincter for urination. . 2026. PMID 42559936 · DOI · PMC13446904
- Peyronnet B, Mironska E, Chapple C, Cardozo L, Oelke M, Dmochowski R, et al.. A Comprehensive Review of Overactive Bladder Pathophysiology: On the Way to Tailored Treatment. Eur Urol. 2019. PMID 30922690 · DOI
- Mundy AR, Andrich DE. Urethral strictures. BJU Int. 2011. PMID 21176068 · DOI
- Mungovan SF, Sandhu JS, Akin O, Smart NA, Graham PL, Patel MI. Preoperative Membranous Urethral Length Measurement and Continence Recovery Following Radical Prostatectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Eur Urol. 2017. PMID 27394644 · DOI · PMC5600894
- Heesakkers J, Farag F, Bauer RM, Sandhu J, De Ridder D, Stenzl A. Pathophysiology and Contributing Factors in Postprostatectomy Incontinence: A Review. Eur Urol. 2017. PMID 27720536 · DOI
- Lumen N, Oosterlinck W, Hoebeke P. Urethral reconstruction using buccal mucosa or penile skin grafts: systematic review and meta-analysis. Urol Int. 2012. PMID 22889835 · DOI
- Pfistermuller KL, McArdle AJ, Cuckow PM. Meta-analysis of complication rates of the tubularized incised plate (TIP) repair. J Pediatr Urol. 2015. PMID 25819601 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.