Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (692 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The number of times an organism breathes with the lungs (respiration) per unit time, usually per minute.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Rate, Respiratory; Rates, Respiratory; Respiratory Rates; Respiration Rate; Rate, Respiration; Rates, Respiration; Respiration Rates.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Vital Signs; Respiration
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 4,694 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Respiratory Rate” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 1,863 of them (39.7%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2010-2019 with 2,725 records.
Reviews account for 178 records (3.8%) and meta-analyses for 27. Randomized controlled trials number 407 (8.7%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up a comparatively large share of this literature, which means many treatment questions have been tested directly.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 26 |
| 2000-2009 | 80 |
| 2010-2019 | 2,725 |
| 2020 onward | 1,863 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 178 | 3.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 27 | 0.6% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 407 | 8.7% |
Method: PubMed query "Respiratory Rate"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Importance of Respiratory Rate Monitoring: From Healthcare to Sport and Exercise | 2020 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 174 | cc by PMID 33182463 · DOI · PMC7665156 |
| Breathing Rate Estimation From the Electrocardiogram and Photoplethysmogram: A Review | 2018 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 152 | cc by PMID 29990026 · DOI · PMC7612521 |
| Contact-Based Methods for Measuring Respiratory Rate | 2019 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 142 | cc by PMID 30795595 · DOI · PMC6413190 |
| Using a virtual reality game to train biofeedback-based regulation under stress conditions | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 10 | cc by PMID 39385361 · DOI · PMC7617308 |
The Importance of Respiratory Rate Monitoring: From Healthcare to Sport and Exercise [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Respiratory rate is a fundamental vital sign that is sensitive to different pathological conditions (e.
- Closing excerpt
- This review is expected to advance the field of respiratory monitoring and favor synergies between different disciplines to accomplish this goal.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (194 words)
Respiratory rate is a fundamental vital sign that is sensitive to different pathological conditions (e.g., adverse cardiac events, pneumonia, and clinical deterioration) and stressors, including emotional stress, cognitive load, heat, cold, physical effort, and exercise-induced fatigue. The sensitivity of respiratory rate to these conditions is superior compared to that of most of the other vital signs, and the abundance of suitable technological solutions measuring respiratory rate has important implications for healthcare, occupational settings, and sport. However, respiratory rate is still too often not routinely monitored in these fields of use. This review presents a multidisciplinary approach to respiratory monitoring, with the aim to improve the development and efficacy of respiratory monitoring services. We have identified thirteen monitoring goals where the use of the respiratory rate is invaluable, and for each of them we have described suitable sensors and techniques to monitor respiratory rate in specific measurement scenarios. We have also provided a physiological rationale corroborating the importance of respiratory rate monitoring and an original multidisciplinary framework for the development of respiratory monitoring services. This review is expected to advance the field of respiratory monitoring and favor synergies between different disciplines to accomplish this goal.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 33182463 · DOI · PMC7665156
Breathing Rate Estimation From the Electrocardiogram and Photoplethysmogram: A Review [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Breathing rate (BR) is a key physiological parameter used in a range of clinical settings.
- Closing excerpt
- Third, we outline the most pressing directions for future research, including the steps required to use BR algorithms in wearable sensors, remote video monitoring, and clinical practice.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (157 words)
Breathing rate (BR) is a key physiological parameter used in a range of clinical settings. Despite its diagnostic and prognostic value, it is still widely measured by counting breaths manually. A plethora of algorithms have been proposed to estimate BR from the electrocardiogram (ECG) and pulse oximetry (photoplethysmogram, PPG) signals. These BR algorithms provide opportunity for automated, electronic, and unobtrusive measurement of BR in both healthcare and fitness monitoring. This paper presents a review of the literature on BR estimation from the ECG and PPG. First, the structure of BR algorithms and the mathematical techniques used at each stage are described. Second, the experimental methodologies that have been used to assess the performance of BR algorithms are reviewed, and a methodological framework for the assessment of BR algorithms is presented. Third, we outline the most pressing directions for future research, including the steps required to use BR algorithms in wearable sensors, remote video monitoring, and clinical practice.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 29990026 · DOI · PMC7612521
Contact-Based Methods for Measuring Respiratory Rate [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- There is an ever-growing demand for measuring respiratory variables during a variety of applications, including monitoring in clinical and occupational settings, and during sporting activities and exercise.
- Closing excerpt
- Working principles, metrological characteristics, and applications in the respiratory monitoring field are presented to explore potential development and applicability for each method.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (149 words)
There is an ever-growing demand for measuring respiratory variables during a variety of applications, including monitoring in clinical and occupational settings, and during sporting activities and exercise. Special attention is devoted to the monitoring of respiratory rate because it is a vital sign, which responds to a variety of stressors. There are different methods for measuring respiratory rate, which can be classed as contact-based or contactless. The present paper provides an overview of the currently available contact-based methods for measuring respiratory rate. For these methods, the sensing element (or part of the instrument containing it) is attached to the subject's body. Methods based upon the recording of respiratory airflow, sounds, air temperature, air humidity, air components, chest wall movements, and modulation of the cardiac activity are presented. Working principles, metrological characteristics, and applications in the respiratory monitoring field are presented to explore potential development and applicability for each method.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 30795595 · DOI · PMC6413190
Using a virtual reality game to train biofeedback-based regulation under stress conditions [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Physiological regulation strategies can be effective in reducing anxiety.
- Closing excerpt
- This may offer the opportunity for clinical techniques to more closely reflect the circumstances under which those techniques will be required.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (192 words)
Physiological regulation strategies can be effective in reducing anxiety. However, while these strategies are often learned and practised under low-stress conditions, they are more likely to be required under conditions of high stress. We created virtual reality (VR) biofeedback games to both teach participants a breathing technique and then practise that technique under stress. We present two studies: the first provides a proof of concept, demonstrating that participants can apply the breathing technique during stress, with a significant lowering of both respiration rate and increase in heart rate variability (HRV) under stress (p < .001). The second study explicitly evaluated the effectiveness of training by comparing trained and untrained groups. Training was associated with a significantly greater HRV (p = .008) under stress. In within-group comparisons of HRV during stress compared to a baseline stressor presented before training, the trained group showed a significantly greater increase compared to untrained controls (p = .025). Our results show the feasibility and potential effectiveness of VR-based games for biofeedback training under experimentally applied stress. This may offer the opportunity for clinical techniques to more closely reflect the circumstances under which those techniques will be required.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39385361 · DOI · PMC7617308
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age: a systematic review of observational studies [5]
- Research article Respiration rate monitoring methods: a review [6]
- Research article Heart rate variability and slow-paced breathing:when coherence meets resonance [7]
- Research article Recent development of respiratory rate measurement technologies [8]
- Research article Cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory coupling analyses: a review [9]
References
- Nicolò A, Massaroni C, Schena E, Sacchetti M. The Importance of Respiratory Rate Monitoring: From Healthcare to Sport and Exercise. . 2020. PMID 33182463 · DOI · PMC7665156
- Charlton PH, Birrenkott DA, Bonnici T, Pimentel MAF, Johnson AEW, Alastruey J, et al.. Breathing Rate Estimation From the Electrocardiogram and Photoplethysmogram: A Review. . 2018. PMID 29990026 · DOI · PMC7612521
- Massaroni C, Nicolò A, Lo Presti D, Sacchetti M, Silvestri S, Schena E. Contact-Based Methods for Measuring Respiratory Rate. . 2019. PMID 30795595 · DOI · PMC6413190
- Daniel-Watanabe L, Cook B, Leung G, Krstulović M, Finnemann J, Woolley T, et al.. Using a virtual reality game to train biofeedback-based regulation under stress conditions. . 2025. PMID 39385361 · DOI · PMC7617308
- Fleming S, Thompson M, Stevens R, Heneghan C, Plüddemann A, Maconochie I, et al.. Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age: a systematic review of observational studies. Lancet. 2011. PMID 21411136 · DOI · PMC3789232
- Al-Khalidi FQ, Saatchi R, Burke D, Elphick H, Tan S. Respiration rate monitoring methods: a review. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011. PMID 21560260 · DOI
- Sevoz-Couche C, Laborde S. Heart rate variability and slow-paced breathing:when coherence meets resonance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022. PMID 35167847 · DOI
- Liu H, Allen J, Zheng D, Chen F. Recent development of respiratory rate measurement technologies. Physiol Meas. 2019. PMID 31195383 · DOI
- Schulz S, Adochiei FC, Edu IR, Schroeder R, Costin H, Bär KJ, et al.. Cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory coupling analyses: a review. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2013. PMID 23858490 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
See how EvidenceLib is built. Spotted an error? Email support@evidencehelix.com.
Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.