Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (693 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Hormones that stimulate gonadal functions such as gametogenesis and sex steroid hormone production in the ovary and the testis. Major gonadotropins are glycoproteins produced primarily by the adenohypophysis (gonadotropins, pituitary) and the placenta (chorionic gonadotropin). In some species, pituitary prolactin and placental lactogen exert some luteotropic activities.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Gonadotropin.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Peptide Hormones
- Narrower topics
- Chorionic Gonadotropin; Gonadotropins, Equine; Gonadotropins, Pituitary
- See also
- Receptors, Gonadotropin
Related concepts
- Gametogenesis
- Ovary
- Testis
- Gonadotropins
- Pituitary
- Chorionic Gonadotropin
- Prolactin
- Placental Lactogen
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 134,380 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Gonadotropins” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 8,192 of them (6.1%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 89,904 records.
Reviews account for 9,585 records (7.1%) and meta-analyses for 497. Randomized controlled trials number 3,933 (2.9%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 89,904 |
| 2000-2009 | 20,748 |
| 2010-2019 | 15,536 |
| 2020 onward | 8,192 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 9,585 | 7.1% |
| Meta-analyses | 497 | 0.4% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 3,933 | 2.9% |
Method: PubMed query "Gonadotropins"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The role of luteinizing hormone activity in spermatogenesis: from physiology to clinical practice | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 16 | cc by PMID 39800700 · DOI · PMC11726975 |
| The role of LH in follicle development: from physiology to new clinical implications | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 16 | cc by PMID 39930391 · DOI · PMC11808943 |
| The association between maternal stress and human milk concentrations of cortisol and prolactin | 2024 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 13 | cc by PMID 39548101 · DOI · PMC11568148 |
| Stress-Induced Activation of Prolactin-NR4A1-Midkine Axis Exacerbates Skin Inflammation | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 5 | cc by PMID 41194398 · DOI · PMC12850390 |
The role of luteinizing hormone activity in spermatogenesis: from physiology to clinical practice [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The production of spermatozoa, a process known as spermatogenesis, is primarily controlled by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)-driven testosterone.
- Closing excerpt
- However, further research is required to completely elucidate the mechanisms underlying the effects of LH activity on sperm production and to establish the most effective dosages and treatment durations.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (174 words)
The production of spermatozoa, a process known as spermatogenesis, is primarily controlled by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)-driven testosterone. LH acts on the Leydig cells, stimulating steroid production, predominantly testosterone, and activating critical inter-related spermatogenesis regulatory pathways. Despite evidence that exogenous gonadotropins containing LH activity can effectively restore spermatogenesis in males with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, the use of these drugs to treat other forms of male infertility is the subject of an ongoing debate. In this review, we delve into the molecular properties and functions of LH activity in spermatogenesis regulation and explore available preparations for therapeutic use. We also examine the evidence regarding the effectiveness of LH-containing drugs in treating specific male infertility conditions and identify the main areas for future research. Our review highlights the critical role of LH in spermatogenesis and emphasizes the potential of LH-containing drugs in treating male infertility. However, further research is required to completely elucidate the mechanisms underlying the effects of LH activity on sperm production and to establish the most effective dosages and treatment durations.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39800700 · DOI · PMC11726975
The role of LH in follicle development: from physiology to new clinical implications [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The process of follicle development is closely regulated by two pituitary gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
- Closing excerpt
- This review outlines recent findings on the mechanisms of human follicle development, based on human and animal models, with a direct focus on possible new clinical applications.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (176 words)
The process of follicle development is closely regulated by two pituitary gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Traditionally, folliculogenesis is considered to be divided into a gonadotropin-independent phase and a gonadotropin-dependent phase. Despite this, recent evidence has demonstrated that functional LH receptors are expressed even in smaller follicles during the phase considered to be gonadotropin independent. Luteinizing hormone promotes androgen synthesis within ovarian follicles and seems to significantly contribute to accelerate and enhance the transition from the primordial to the antral stage of folliculogenesis. Thus, LH could play a fundamental role in determining the number of recruitable antral follicles, with a direct impact on the cyclic recruitment of follicles and reproductive potential. Common clinical conditions of pituitary suppression such as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, other than pregnancy and combined oral contraceptive use, have been considered to analyze the effect of lower serum LH levels on the functional ovarian reserve. This review outlines recent findings on the mechanisms of human follicle development, based on human and animal models, with a direct focus on possible new clinical applications.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39930391 · DOI · PMC11808943
The association between maternal stress and human milk concentrations of cortisol and prolactin [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Psychosocial stress affects the relationship between prolactin (PRL) and cortisol (CORT).
- Closing excerpt
- In response to psychological stress, both hormones transported via milk can program infant development in the early postnatal period.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (201 words)
Psychosocial stress affects the relationship between prolactin (PRL) and cortisol (CORT). The dynamics of PRL and CORT changes under stress in human milk (HM) are largely unknown. We investigated how maternal stress related to recent life changes affects milk CORT and PRL concentrations. The study involved 116 mothers exclusively breastfeeding 5-month-old infants. Maternal psychological stress was evaluated using the Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ). Stress response was determined by administering the cold pressor test and measuring CORT in saliva taken during and in milk collected after the test. Hormones concentrations were assayed using the ELISA method. The hierarchical regression models were run to test the association between maternal RLCQ, salivary CORT, and PRL, and CORT in milk. Maternal RLCQ correlated positively with the CORT in saliva, however, no direct association was found between RLCQ and PRL. After controlling for covariates, a positive association was found between salivary and milk CORT. A negative relationship was observed between salivary CORT and milk PRL. The results of the present study indicate that maternal psychological stress may affect the relationship between CORT and PRL in HM. In response to psychological stress, both hormones transported via milk can program infant development in the early postnatal period.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39548101 · DOI · PMC11568148
Stress-Induced Activation of Prolactin-NR4A1-Midkine Axis Exacerbates Skin Inflammation [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Stress is an established trigger of skin inflammation and disease flares; however, the mechanisms have remained unclear.
- Closing excerpt
- These data provide a novel mechanism for stress-related amplification of skin inflammation and identify NR4A1 and midkine as potential therapeutic targets to mitigate stress-exacerbated inflammation.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (142 words)
Stress is an established trigger of skin inflammation and disease flares; however, the mechanisms have remained unclear. Here, using human data, mechanistic exploration, and single-cell RNA sequencing in mouse models of skin inflammation under stress challenge, prolactin is identified as a key mediator linking stress to inflammatory responses in the skin through an NR4A1-midkine axis in APCDD1+ fibroblasts in the upper dermis. The data shows that prolactin is increased in the plasma of psoriasis patients with high levels of stress and in stressed mice, which activates transcription factor NR4A1 in APCDD1+ fibroblasts, promoting secretion of midkine, and amplification of immune infiltration and responses in neighboring cells. Targeting NR4A1 or midkine effectively reverses these inflammatory effects in vivo. These data provide a novel mechanism for stress-related amplification of skin inflammation and identify NR4A1 and midkine as potential therapeutic targets to mitigate stress-exacerbated inflammation.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41194398 · DOI · PMC12850390
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Ovulation: Parallels With Inflammatory Processes [5]
- Research article Clinical Management of Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism [6]
- Research article The Roles of Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Testosterone in Spermatogenesis and Folliculogenesis Revisited [7]
- Research article Activin A in Mammalian Physiology [8]
- Research article Hormonal Effects on Hair Follicles [9]
- Research article Addition of growth hormone to gonadotrophins in ovarian stimulation of poor responders treated by in-vitro fertilization: a systematic review and meta-analysis [10]
References
- Esteves SC, Humaidan P. The role of luteinizing hormone activity in spermatogenesis: from physiology to clinical practice. . 2025. PMID 39800700 · DOI · PMC11726975
- Longo M, Liuzzi F, De Carlini S, La Marca A. The role of LH in follicle development: from physiology to new clinical implications. . 2025. PMID 39930391 · DOI · PMC11808943
- Matyas M, Apanasewicz A, Krzystek-Korpacka M, Jamrozik N, Cierniak A, Babiszewska-Aksamit M, et al.. The association between maternal stress and human milk concentrations of cortisol and prolactin. . 2024. PMID 39548101 · DOI · PMC11568148
- Li Z, Quan H, Liu W, Chen J, Chu M, Tang X, et al.. Stress-Induced Activation of Prolactin-NR4A1-Midkine Axis Exacerbates Skin Inflammation. . 2026. PMID 41194398 · DOI · PMC12850390
- Duffy DM, Ko C, Jo M, Brannstrom M, Curry TE. Ovulation: Parallels With Inflammatory Processes. Endocr Rev. 2019. PMID 30496379 · DOI · PMC6405411
- Young J, Xu C, Papadakis GE, Acierno JS, Maione L, Hietamäki J, et al.. Clinical Management of Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism. Endocr Rev. 2019. PMID 30698671 · DOI
- Oduwole OO, Huhtaniemi IT, Misrahi M. The Roles of Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Testosterone in Spermatogenesis and Folliculogenesis Revisited. Int J Mol Sci. 2021. PMID 34884539 · DOI · PMC8658012
- Bloise E, Ciarmela P, Dela Cruz C, Luisi S, Petraglia F, Reis FM. Activin A in Mammalian Physiology. Physiol Rev. 2019. PMID 30540228 · DOI
- Grymowicz M, Rudnicka E, Podfigurna A, Napierala P, Smolarczyk R, Smolarczyk K, et al.. Hormonal Effects on Hair Follicles. Int J Mol Sci. 2020. PMID 32731328 · DOI · PMC7432488
- Kolibianakis EM, Venetis CA, Diedrich K, Tarlatzis BC, Griesinger G. Addition of growth hormone to gonadotrophins in ovarian stimulation of poor responders treated by in-vitro fertilization: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2009. PMID 19561136 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.