Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (756 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Scaly papule or warty growth, caused by five fungi, that spreads as a result of satellite lesions affecting the foot or leg. The extremity may become swollen and, at its distal portion, covered with various nodular, tumorous, verrucous lesions that resemble cauliflower. In rare instances, the disease may begin on the hand or wrist and involve the entire upper extremity. (Arnold, Odom, and James, Andrew's Diseases of the Skin, 8th ed, p362)
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Chromoblastomycoses; Chromomycosis; Chromomycoses; Dermatitis Verrucosa.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Dermatomycoses
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 1,112 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Chromoblastomycosis” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 155 of them (13.9%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 581 records.
Reviews account for 109 records (9.8%) and meta-analyses for 1. Randomized controlled trials number 1 (0.1%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 581 |
| 2000-2009 | 150 |
| 2010-2019 | 226 |
| 2020 onward | 155 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 109 | 9.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 1 | 0.1% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 1 | 0.1% |
Method: PubMed query "Chromoblastomycosis"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in infectious diseases
Infectious disease evidence combines microbiology, epidemiology and clinical trials. Laboratory studies identify pathogens and how they cause harm; surveillance and outbreak investigations describe who is affected and how infection spreads; trials establish whether treatments and vaccines work. Results depend on place and time, because pathogens evolve and resistance patterns and population immunity change. Check when and where the data were collected, how cases were defined and how up to date the evidence is.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Restoration of pattern recognition receptor costimulation to treat chromoblastomycosis, a chronic fungal infection of the skin | 2011 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 123 | cc by PMID 21575914 · DOI · PMC3098964 |
| The global burden of chromoblastomycosis | 2021 | Systematic review Design not recorded in structured metadata | 77 | cc by PMID 34383752 · DOI · PMC8360387 |
| Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species | 2011 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 55 | cc by PMID 21392438 · DOI · PMC3165995 |
| Single-cell RNA sequencing unravels T cell exhaustion underlying the chronicity of chromoblastomycosis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42079606 · DOI · PMC13133555 |
Restoration of pattern recognition receptor costimulation to treat chromoblastomycosis, a chronic fungal infection of the skin [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic skin infection caused by the fungus Fonsecaea pedrosoi.
- Closing excerpt
- These results demonstrate how a failure in innate recognition can result in chronic infection, highlight the importance of coordinated PRR signaling, and provide proof of the principle that exogenously applied PRR agonists can be used therapeutically.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (140 words)
Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic skin infection caused by the fungus Fonsecaea pedrosoi. Exploring the reasons underlying the chronic nature of F. pedrosoi infection in a murine model of chromoblastomycosis, we find that chronicity develops due to a lack of pattern recognition receptor (PRR) costimulation. F. pedrosoi was recognized primarily by C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), but not by Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which resulted in the defective induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Inflammatory responses to F. pedrosoi could be reinstated by TLR costimulation, but also required the CLR Mincle and signaling via the Syk/CARD9 pathway. Importantly, exogenously administering TLR ligands helped clear F. pedrosoi infection in vivo. These results demonstrate how a failure in innate recognition can result in chronic infection, highlight the importance of coordinated PRR signaling, and provide proof of the principle that exogenously applied PRR agonists can be used therapeutically.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 21575914 · DOI · PMC3098964
The global burden of chromoblastomycosis [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundChromoblastomycosis (CBM), represents one of the primary implantation mycoses caused by melanized fungi widely found in nature.
- Closing excerpt
- The recognition of CBM as NTD emphasizes the need for public health efforts to promote support for all local governments interested in developing specific policies and actions for preventing, diagnosing and assisting patients.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (284 words)
BackgroundChromoblastomycosis (CBM), represents one of the primary implantation mycoses caused by melanized fungi widely found in nature. It is characterized as a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) and mainly affects populations living in poverty with significant morbidity, including stigma and discrimination.Methods and findingsIn order to estimate the global burden of CBM, we retrospectively reviewed the published literature from 1914 to 2020. Over the 106-year period, a total of 7,740 patients with CBM were identified on all continents except Antarctica. Most of the cases were reported from South America (2,619 cases), followed by Africa (1,875 cases), Central America and Mexico (1,628 cases), Asia (1,390 cases), Oceania (168 cases), Europe (35 cases), and USA and Canada (25 cases). We described 4,022 (81.7%) male and 896 (18.3%) female patients, with the median age of 52.5 years. The average time between the onset of the first lesion and CBM diagnosis was 9.2 years (range between 1 month to 50 years). The main sites involved were the lower limbs (56.7%), followed by the upper limbs (19.9%), head and neck (2.9%), and trunk (2.4%). Itching and pain were reported by 21.5% and 11%, respectively. Malignant transformation was described in 22 cases. A total of 3,817 fungal isolates were cultured, being 3,089 (80.9%) Fonsecaea spp., 552 (14.5%) Cladophialophora spp., and 56 Phialophora spp. (1.5%).Conclusions and significanceThis review represents our current knowledge on the burden of CBM world-wide. The global incidence remains unclear and local epidemiological studies are required to improve these data, especially in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The recognition of CBM as NTD emphasizes the need for public health efforts to promote support for all local governments interested in developing specific policies and actions for preventing, diagnosing and assisting patients.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 34383752 · DOI · PMC8360387
Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- To assess population diversities among 81 strains of fungi in the genus Fonsecaea that had been identified down to species level, we applied amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) technology and sequenced the internal transcribed spacer regions and the partial cell division cycle, beta-tubulin, and actin genes.
- Closing excerpt
- Clinical cases outside areas where Fonsecaea is endemic were probably distributed by human migration.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (148 words)
To assess population diversities among 81 strains of fungi in the genus Fonsecaea that had been identified down to species level, we applied amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) technology and sequenced the internal transcribed spacer regions and the partial cell division cycle, beta-tubulin, and actin genes. Many species of the genus Fonsecaea cause human chromoblastomycosis. Strains originated from a global sampling of clinical and environmental sources in the Western Hemisphere, Asia, Africa, and Europe. According to AFLP fingerprinting, Fonsecaea isolates clustered in 5 groups corresponding with F. pedrosoi, F. monophora, and F. nubica: the latter 2 species each comprised 2 groups, and F. pedrosoi appeared to be of monophyletic origin. F. pedrosoi was found nearly exclusively in Central and South America. F. monophora and F. nubica were distributed worldwide, but both showed substantial geographic structuring. Clinical cases outside areas where Fonsecaea is endemic were probably distributed by human migration.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 21392438 · DOI · PMC3165995
Single-cell RNA sequencing unravels T cell exhaustion underlying the chronicity of chromoblastomycosis [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- IntroductionChromoblastomycosis (CBM) is a chronic, neglected tropical fungal infection.
- Closing excerpt
- DiscussionOur findings establish CD4+ T cell exhaustion as an important mechanism underlying the chronicity of chromoblastomycosis, revealing a new immunopathological perspective for this neglected disease.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (184 words)
IntroductionChromoblastomycosis (CBM) is a chronic, neglected tropical fungal infection. Its immunopathogenesis, particularly the mechanism underlying its chronicity, remains poorly understood.MethodsWe performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) on lesional skin from a CBM patient, followed by comprehensive bioinformatics analyses. We then used multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) to validate CD4+ T cell exhaustion in CBM patient lesions and the mouse model of Fonsecaea pedrosoi infection.ResultsWe identified a significantly expanded population of exhausted CD4+ T cells within the patient's lesions, which exhibited high co-expression of inhibitory receptors (PD-1, TIM-3, LAG-3) and functional impairment. Trajectory inference suggested a differentiation path from naive towards exhaustion within the chronic inflammatory environment. Cell-cell communication analysis implicated monocytes/macrophages (MoMacs) as key drivers of this process via persistent antigen presentation and ligand-receptor interactions such as CTLA4-CD80/86 and LGALS9-CD44. The accumulation of exhausted CD4+ T cells was confirmed in human CBM lesions by multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF), and the progressive development of exhaustion was recapitulated in the mouse model of Fonsecaea pedrosoi infection.DiscussionOur findings establish CD4+ T cell exhaustion as an important mechanism underlying the chronicity of chromoblastomycosis, revealing a new immunopathological perspective for this neglected disease.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42079606 · DOI · PMC13133555
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Chromoblastomycosis [5]
- Research article Chromoblastomycosis: an overview of clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment [6]
- Research article Chromoblastomycosis [7]
- Research article Chromoblastomycosis: an etiological, epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, and treatment update [8]
- Research article Biology and pathogenesis of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, the major etiologic agent of chromoblastomycosis [9]
- Research article Treating chromoblastomycosis with systemic antifungals [10]
References
- Sousa Mda G, Reid DM, Schweighoffer E, Tybulewicz V, Ruland J, Langhorne J, et al.. Restoration of pattern recognition receptor costimulation to treat chromoblastomycosis, a chronic fungal infection of the skin. . 2011. PMID 21575914 · DOI · PMC3098964
- Santos DWCL, de Azevedo CMPES, Vicente VA, Queiroz-Telles F, Rodrigues AM, de Hoog GS, et al.. The global burden of chromoblastomycosis. . 2021. PMID 34383752 · DOI · PMC8360387
- Najafzadeh MJ, Sun J, Vicente VA, Klaassen CH, Bonifaz A, Gerrits van den Ende AH, et al.. Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species. . 2011. PMID 21392438 · DOI · PMC3165995
- Lei K, Tian J, Zhang L, Gong Z, Liu W, Wan Z, et al.. Single-cell RNA sequencing unravels T cell exhaustion underlying the chronicity of chromoblastomycosis. . 2026. PMID 42079606 · DOI · PMC13133555
- Queiroz-Telles F, de Hoog S, Santos DW, Salgado CG, Vicente VA, Bonifaz A, et al.. Chromoblastomycosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017. PMID 27856522 · DOI · PMC5217794
- Queiroz-Telles F, Esterre P, Perez-Blanco M, Vitale RG, Salgado CG, Bonifaz A. Chromoblastomycosis: an overview of clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Med Mycol. 2009. PMID 19085206 · DOI
- López Martínez R, Méndez Tovar LJ. Chromoblastomycosis. Clin Dermatol. 2007. PMID 17350498 · DOI
- Brito AC, Bittencourt MJS. Chromoblastomycosis: an etiological, epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, and treatment update. An Bras Dermatol. 2018. PMID 30066754 · DOI · PMC6063100
- Santos AL, Palmeira VF, Rozental S, Kneipp LF, Nimrichter L, Alviano DS, et al.. Biology and pathogenesis of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, the major etiologic agent of chromoblastomycosis. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2007. PMID 17645522 · DOI
- Bonifaz A, Paredes-Solís V, Saúl A. Treating chromoblastomycosis with systemic antifungals. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2004. PMID 14996622 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.